Date: 04-Apr-2006
From: Sally Hinrich <s.hinrich okstate.edu>
Subject: Linguistic Dimensions of Crisis Talk
Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/16/16-2938.html
AUTHOR: Sassen, Claudia
TITLE: Linguistic Dimensions of Crisis Talk
SUBTITLE: Formalising structures in a controlled language
SERIES: Pragmatics and Beyond New Series, Volume 136
PUBLISHER: John Benjamins Publishing
YEAR: 2005
Sally Wellenbrock Hinrich, Department of English, Oklahoma State
University
DESCRIPTION
Using a computer-based modeling system, the author proposes Head-
driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) -based discourse grammar
for a restricted language that allows the identification of well-formed
discourse patterns. The modeling system is designed to analyze and
identify discourse used to coordinate actions that might result in
avoiding a potential disaster. A corpus for analysis was drawn from
aviation accident transcripts between cockpit crews and between flight
crews and controllers during an emerging crisis situation.
SYNOPSIS:
Chapter 1: Towards an analysis of crisis talk.
Using the domain of aviation communication, the author defines Crisis
Talk as ''a dialogue genre that occurs in threatening situations of
unpredictable outcome, with no obvious way out, and requiring
spontaneous decision, unconventional strategies and unrehearsed
actions.'' Sassen's primary objective is to establish a framework that
examines the viability of incorporating a speech-act methodology in
order to categorize the linguistic structures occurring in aviation
disasters. The corpus used for analysis is drawn from air traffic control
and cockpit voice recorder transcripts available on the internet from
independent sites.
The analysis focuses on the functions found in the linguistic
sequences of the interactions rather than on individual lexical items
within utterances. In order to accomplish the analysis, extensible
markup language (XML) is combined with an extended form of HPSG-
based attribute value matrices. Through this extension of the formal
HPSG annotation system, Sassen argues that both utterance-level
and discourse-level communication can be modeled using a single
HPSG-based sign.
Sassen predicts the following results from the analysis:
1. Crisis talk is different from non-crisis talk with respect to
interactional patterns;
2. In order to disambiguate speech acts, the model of Searle &
Vanderveken's illocutionary logic requires more precision with regard
to the propositional content that is presupposed. This extension can
be achieved by an HPSG-based formalism;
3. An extended HPSG-formalism is an adequate model for the
representation, description and explanation of the disambiguation of
illocutionary acts;
4. It is possible to extend HPSG-based structures and principles from
the interactive sentence level to the utterance level. An extension of
the HPSG-based inventory from the utterance level to the discourse
level is also possible: speech act sequences may be modeled by one
HPSG-based sign;
5. XML uses an attribute value archiving and retrieval formalism, and
is potentially flexible enough to fulfill the requirements of crisis talk
annotation.
The final section of Chapter 1 describes relevant regulations for
language used in aviation, more commonly called ''air traffic
communication.'' As part of the background on sources of error in
communication, Sassen notes that ''among the factors unequivocally
attributable to language, ambiguity figures as a main error source'' as
a result of errors in lexical choice and in grammatical structure. It is
this ambiguity that is targeted by the methodology discussed in the
following chapters. The final section in this chapter describes the
function of Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs) for analysis of aviation-
related accidents. The transcripts created from recovered CVRs are
the basis of the data to be used in this study.
Chapter 2: Discourse-related approaches
In explaining the rationale of choosing illocutionary logic as the
foundation for the study, Sassen argues that illocutionary logic is an
adaptable, adjustable theory and the parts of the theory which do not
apply need to be discarded. Building on this argument, a discussion
showing Austin's (1962) work on illocutionary verbs, is followed by a
section describing Searle's elaboration of simple vs complex
illocutionary acts, semantic rules, and input-output conditions as ''a
pre-requisite for every kind of speech act which pertains to 'intelligible
speaking' and 'understanding''' (Searle, 1969; Searle & Vanderveken,
1985). Because Searle & Vanderveken offer no syntactic system to
identify illocutionary force indicating devices (IFIDs), nor do they
describe a suitable grammar, Sassen states that their illocutionary
logic system ''must be extended'' in order to adequately frame a theory
of discourse. Additional theories of discourse are outlined that could
serve to extend the illocutionary logic framework, including the
advantages and disadvantages of incorporating features from
conversational and discourse analysis.
Chapter 3: Linguistic and corpus methodology
Opening with a discussion of inductive and deductive methods,
Sassen observes that conversational analysis, as an inductive
method, ''has to be precluded'' because the analytical framework must
be established before applying that framework to empirical data.
Sassen then examines a methodology to formalize Searle's theory in
order ''to make his results and extensions to his research efficiently
processible.''
The analysis of the aviation accident transcripts draws from the
domain of linguistics incorporating two theories: speech act theory
which relates to illocutionary components of utterances that is
combined with syntactic theory which addresses sentence-level
components. Both theories are then joined through the illocutionary
force indicating devices. Reiterating her goal of ''providing
foundational research for the remote goal to (semi-) automatically
identify speech acts through an annotation system that identifies
specific meanings to a sequence of linguistic structures,'' she then
proposes the validity of transforming grammatical units into attribute-
value structures. This transformation is necessary because it allows
for a wide range of potential structures while it also represents the
pragmatic features of sentences. Sassen discusses how this
transformation is accomplished through head-driven phrase structure
grammar (HPSG) which is ''enriched by certain attributes that are not
as yet common to HPSG grammars,'' but which will provide a means to
examine how well the approach yields significant results. Sassen then
explains how HPSG-formalism allows a detailed description of the
syntactic structure of sentences and also their semantic treatment,
including various pragmatic and background features.
In the next section describing the creation of the research corpus,
(composed of two of the 77 aviation accident transcript files), Sassen
outlines the transcription conversions necessary to accommodate
analysis of the raw transcript data. In addition, ''[a] crisis talk markup
system clearly needs...detailed syntactic, semantic and pragmatic
features'' which can be more accurately described by an extensive
markup language (XML), which allows data to be structured into two
fields: ''object language/concrete data'' and ''abstract units/meta
language.'' XML was chosen primarily because it allows both
hierarchical and sequential ordering of elements. Several approaches
to annotating the linguistic structures are presented, including
diagrams, based on a system developed by Bird & Liberman (1999).
Chapter 4: Analysis of general dialogue properties
The criteria for marking the transcripts are based on guidelines
developed by the Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering
Standards (EAGLES; Gibbons, Mertins & Moore, 2000). Examples of
this process of converting the ATC/CVR transcripts to the transcription
criteria are presented in combination with references to the EAGLES
guidelines. One advantage to this annotation system is the ability to
identify and document overlapping transmissions as an ongoing
relationship to the developing dialogue (rather than as sequentially
listed lines of dialogue/events typically used in the aviation
transcripts). Most of the aviation accident transcripts used sentence-
level, or complete word forms in transcription, which ''...has the
advantage that annotation and retrieval tools may be applied relatively
unproblematically to speech as well as to writing.'' Sassen also notes
that the EAGLES guidelines support using standard (''dictionary'')
spelling ''...[which] has the advantage of improving readability for the
human user and of increasing processibility for taggers and parsers.''
Following the conversion of the transcripts, perl-scripts are used to
generate data as a text base and XML-markup. Sassen notes that no
typical development of phases that lead to a crisis can be observed in
the transcripts, so she assigned three broad phases and supports her
choices with examples from the research data: ''non-crisis,'' ''before
the crisis'' and ''crisis.'' These broad phases of aviation communication
each include subdivisions of ''conversational phases'' (opening, medial
and terminal). A separate categorization includes discourse-control
processes that consist of three potentially overlapping functions: topic
processes (goal-oriented sequences of information exchange), uptake
processes (error-control strategies in support of the topics) and
framing processes (orientation points within the discourse). Discourse-
control processes are then examined using examples of both
professional (related to the aviation situation) and non-professional
(not related to aviation situation) communication.
Chapter 5: Analysis of particular dialogue properties
In the introduction to this chapter, Sassen states that ''For an analysis
of crisis talk, not every ATC/CFR-transcript is appropriate. To fulfill the
criterion of empirical soundness, the transcript is required to show
both threads of crisis talk and threads that do not apply to a crisis
situation... [these threads are] essential for contrastive analyses of
crisis and non-crisis talk features. The other essential requirement is
the criterion of empirical completeness of the dialogue...the present
analysis stresses the development of a method that allows
investigation of crisis talk from a *functional* point of view, i.e. the
analysis of language use....there is a need for syntactic analysis, too,
as it is a foundation of an automatic analysis.'' A discussion of the
types of regularities in the two transcripts includes the decomposition
of both the dialogue and separate speech acts. Problems in
automating the transcripts are explained, including coding choices
made to represent speech sounds as well as other non-vocal sounds
and for minimal sequencing (such as command-response) and how
certain omissions in the original transcripts were coded. There is
discussion of the system of annotation and graphic representation of
the transcript speech as well as a general description of how
sequencing of voice and sounds could be noted.
The following section outlines the criteria for choosing the two
transcripts that were analyzed with the system. This section describes
how an utterance sequence (from a transcript) is assigned the HPSG-
based notations, how the representations were achieved; then moves
on to the implementation of XML as a denotational semantics for
HPSG-based signs. In addition to a careful explanation of the coding
system, a graphic model of a generic HPSG-based sign
representation model and an example of HPSG-based structure for
the phrase ''disconnect the autopilot'' demonstrate the multiple levels
of annotation. The analysis section ends with a brief explanation of
how HPSG-based signs are mapped into XML.
Conclusion (included in Chapter 5)
An extended form of HPSG provides the means to account for
linguistic principles and rules that determine the well-formedness of
linguistic expressions while XML provides the framework to
incorporate the aviation transcripts which are ''real-life'' situations.
Sassen observes that ''Ideally, this analysis can be used to minimize
escalations during flights and to make aviation safer.'' This section
ends with suggestions for refining a theory of discourse structure
which goes beyond modeling a controlled language such as aviation
discourse.
The overall quality of the publication is excellent. The appendices
include: glossary of aviation terms; abbreviations used for the matrix
of HPSG-based sign; atomic (abbreviated) representation of speech
act types; minimal sequences (of the coding system) and their
modifications; two sample transcripts; and background information
related to the transcripts. There is a useful subject index and an
extensive reference list. A bit of confusion may occur when consulting
the reference list as two pages of references are out of alphabetic
sequence.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Several times, Sassen alludes to the problems which prevented her
access to the original accident audio recordings for a more complete
analysis. However, she provides well-documented information related
to the transcribed dialogues for the sources she uses in the analysis.
Due to increased security measures in the United States, access to
several sources of aviation discourse has become more challenging,
often requiring lengthy approval procedures.
Sassen's linguistic theory draws from both European and American
sources. For scholars interested in developing a richer background in
discourse-related analysis from several points of view, there may be
some non-aviation-related references which could prove useful in
future linguistic research.
Once past the original assignment of speech acts to the lines of
dialogue, it appears there is still an enormous amount of work that
must be done to make the transcript data useful for machine-based
analysis. Sassen argues that this analytic system ultimately
provides ''knowledge of possible defects'' of language used in crisis
situations. This approach is relies on restricting aviation
communication to the rules of aviation phraseology. Yet, as many of
the discarded transcripts show, much of the ''crisis'' discourse is, in
fact, not particularly well-formed, but it also is not
necessarily ''defective'' just because it is not grammatically accurate. In
daily communications between tower and plane (available via the
internet), there are frequent instances where pilots and air traffic
controllers do not use just the approved phraseology, yet the planes
arrive safely at their destination.
Since cockpit voice recorders and flight data recorders operate a
continuous tape loop lasting for only 30 minutes, the final minutes of a
tape may contain only non-linguistic sounds (such as mechanical
failure, coughing related to heavy smoke, etc.), thus minimizing the
amount of discourse available for this type of analysis. In order for any
transcripts to be accepted into the corpus, Sassen argues that the
transcript dialogue must have ''empirical completeness.'' Readers with
conversational or discourse analysis backgrounds may question the
requirement that all utterances must be ''well-formed'' or ''complete'' in
order to provide valid linguistic evidence of a developing or ongoing
crisis. These ''incomplete'' dialogues may, to some degree, contain
verbal information that suggests the participant(s) not only recognize
but are attending to emerging problems or impending danger (Goguen
& Linde, 1983).
While ambiguity may be a common source of language error, as
discussed in Chapter 1, Sassen does not address the means by which
American and international formal aviation phraseology attends to and
minimizes these ambiguities (Sanne, 1999). Further, only two of 77
transcripts (available on the web) met the requirements for the
analytic system used by the author. There was no mention as to how
the author would propose to evaluate the remaining 75 transcripts. It
seems problematic that this many transcripts of authentic ''crisis''
language should be discarded if the research objective is to improve
aviation safety by looking at the discourse of accidents.
In conclusion, Sassen's methodology may prove valuable to
researchers working in machine-based linguistic analysis, whether or
not they are involved in examining a ''controlled language.'' Sassen's
innovative methodology and research adds to an increasing body of
research that investigates the discourse properties of the language of
aviation while it addresses the critical issue of improving safety in
aviation.
Note: For those unfamiliar with HPSG, I recommend reviewing this
website prior to reading chapters 3-5:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPSG.
REFERENCES
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Bird, S., & Liberman, M. (1999). A formal framework for linguistic
annotation. (Technical Report). Department of Computer and
Information Science, University of Pennsylvania (ms-cis-99-01).
Gibbon, D., Mertins, L., & Moore, R. (2000). Handbook of audiovisual,
multimodal and spoken dialogue and systems resources and
terminology for development and product evauation. Doordrecht, New
York: Kluwer. (Final Report of LE EAGLES Phase II project (LE3-4244
10484/0) for the European Commission).
Goguen, J., & Linde, C. (1983). Linguistic methodology for the
analysis of aviation accidents. (No. NASA Contractor Report 3741.
[NTIS No. N84-15135]). Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research
Center.
Sanne, J. (1999). Creating safety in air traffic control. Linkoping,
Sweden: Arkiv Forlag.
Searle, J. (1969). Speech acts. Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J., & Vanderveken, D. (1985). Foundations in illocutionary
logic. Cambridge University Press.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER
Sally Wellenbrock Hinrich is a doctoral candidate in TESL/Linguistics
at Oklahoma State University. Her dissertation investigates the use of
questioning in international pilot and air traffic controller
communication. Her other research interests include English for
Specific Purposes and World Englishes.
This Year the LINGUIST List hopes to raise $52,932. This money will go to help keep the
List running by supporting all of our Student Editors for the coming year.
See below for donation instructions, and don't forget to check out our Fund Drive 2006
LINGUIST List Cruise for some Fund Drive fun!
http://linguistlist.org/cruise.html
There are many ways to donate to LINGUIST!
You can donate right now using our secure credit card form.
Alternatively you can also pledge right now and pay later.
For all information on donating and pledging, including information on how to donate by
check, money order, or wire transfer, please visit:
http://linguistlist.org/donate.html
The LINGUIST List is under the umbrella of Eastern Michigan University and as such can
receive donations through the EMU Foundation, which is a registered 501(c) Non Profit
organization. Our Federal Tax number is 38-6005986. These donations can be offset against
your federal and sometimes your state tax return (U.S. tax payers only). For more
information visit the IRS Web-Site, or contact your financial advisor.
Many companies also offer a gift matching program, such that they will match any gift
you make to a non-profit organization. Normally this entails your contacting your human
resources department and sending us a form that the EMU Foundation fills in and returns
to your employer. This is generally a simple administrative procedure that doubles the
value of your gift to LINGUIST, without costing you an extra penny. Please take a moment
to check if your company operates such a program.
Thank you very much for your support of LINGUIST!
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We would like to thank all of the publishers and subscribers who
donated prizes for this year's Fund Drive games, puzzles, and
competitions.
Publisher Prize Donors:
Blackwell
Cascadilla Press
Continuum
Estudios de Sociolingüística
John Benjamins
The Linguistic Association of Finland
Multilingual Matters
MultiLingual magazine
PORTA LINGUARUM
Speculative Grammarian
Springer
The Surrey Morphology Group
Subscriber Prize Donors:
Paul G. Chapin
Katherine Chen
Madalena Cruz-Ferreira
Dr. Gabriel Dorta
Suzette Haden Elgin
Gang Gu
Elly van Gelderen
Sara Laviosa
Carol Myers-Scotton
Loraine K. Obler, Ph.D
Ana María Ortega and María Luisa Pérez
Pernille Pennington
Claus Pusch
Michael Swan
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The LINGUIST List Hall of Fame
ANGELS ($1000 and over)
Arnold Zwicky
MAINSTAYS ($100 to $1000)
A. Henderson, S. Moran, G. Stamm
Andrea Levitt
Andrew Carnie
Anita Fetzer
Antonella Sorace
Arienne M. Dwyer
Aygul Fitton-Brown
Baden Hughes
Barbara H Partee
Bernadine W. Raiskums
Bernard Spolsky
Billy Clark
CaroLyn Green Hartnett
Cecile McKee
Cinzia Russi
Colin Phillips
Columbia School Linguistic Society
Cynthia Edmiston
Cynthia Tia Linn Johnson
D Terence Langendoen
Danny Moates
Daria Suk
David Bowie
Douglas Dee
Dr. MJ Hardman
Earl M. Herrick
Edward Garrett
Elaine J. Francis and Alexander L. Francis
Elizabeth Traugott
Ellen Woolford and John McCarthy
elly van gelderen
Emily M. Bender
Emmon W Bach
Ernest McCarus
Eugenia Casielles
Frances Trix
Geoff Nathan and Margaret Winters
Gerardo Lorenzino
Heike Behrens
Helen Aristar-Dry & Anthony Aristar
Hubert Cuyckens
Jason Boston and Marisa Ferrara
Jeff Good
Jeff Mielke
Jeff Siegel
John Lawler
John Nerbonne
Julie Auger
Justine Cassell
Karen Davis
Karen Milligan
Katy Carlson
Kemp Williams
Keren Rice
Kevin Gregg
Kirk Hazen
Kristy Beers Fägersten
Kübler Sandra
Laura Buszard-Welcher
Laura Callahan
Line Mikkelsen
Manuela Noske
Margaret Speas
Maribel Romero
Mark Overstreet
Mary Shapiro
Michael Hess
Michael Silverstein
Michael Swan
Monica Macaulay and Joe Salmons
Natasha Warner
Neil Olsen
Pacific Languages Unit, USP
Pam and Allen Munro
Paul Chapin
Pius ten Hacken
Prashant Nagaraja
Revue Romane
Rochelle Lieber
Sally McConnell-Ginet
Sandra Fotos
Sanford Steever
Shanley Allen
Shirley Silver
Simin Karimi
Stefan Th. Gries
Steven Gross
University of Pennsylvania Linguistics Club
Ute Römer
Wannie Carstens
Wayles Browne
Wendy Wilkins
Wynn Chao
Wynn Chao and Emmon Bach
Yoko Hasegawa
Zenzi Griffin
- Plus 6 anonymous donors
SUPPORTERS ($50 to $100)
Aaron Huey Sonnenschein
Adam and Andy Ussishkin and Wedel
Alexander Brock
Alice Turk & Bert Remijsen
Alicia Pousada
Alison Gabriele
Andrea C. Schalley
Andrew Linn
Anette Rosenbach
Anja Wanner
Ann Wehmeyer
Anna Fowles-Winkler
Anne Barron
annie zaenen
Aoyama
Arsalan Kahnemuyipour
Barbora Skarabela and Mits Ota
Bonnie D. Schwartz
Bruce Spencer
Carol A. Klee
Cassandre Creswell
Catherine Anderson
Charlotte Brammer
Chih-hsiang Shu
Christina Villafana Dalcher
Christine Gunlogson
Christopher Bader
Claude Mauk
Claus D. Pusch
Clyde Hankey
Cristina Piva
Cynthia Gordon
Deborah Anderson
Don Rubin
Eduardo Urios-Aparisi
Eric Haeberli
Erin O'Rourke
Eva Schultze-Berndt
Florian Jaeger
Francesca Del Gobbo
Francisco Dubert
Frauke Zeller
Gail Stygall
Georgetown University - Graduate Student Linguistics Association
Grover Hudson
Heidi Harley
Henrik Jørgensen
Hernan Emilio Perez
Hortènsia Curell
Huei-ling Lai
Inge Genee
Ingrid Piller
Irina Temnikova
Ivano Caponigro
James Lavine
Jean Mulder
Jennifer Cole
Jennifer L Smith
Jie Zhang
Jila Ghomeshi
Joana Rossello
Joaquim Barbosa
Job M. van Zuijlen
Johanna Laakso
Jose-Luis Mendivil
Josep M. Fontana and Louise McNally
Josep Quer
Joybrato Mukherjee
Juan Carlos Rubio
Judith Meinschaefer
Judy Reilly
kar lok Leung
Karen Corrigan
Kate Paesani
Katherine Appleby
Kathleen M. Ward
Keith Slater
Kevin Burrows
Kristin Denham
Larry LaFond
Laura Downing
Laura McGarrity
Laurie Zaring
Lee Fullerton
Linguistica Occitana (www.revistadoc.org)
Linnaea Stockall
Lisa Davidson
Lisa Galvin
Lise Menn
Ljiljana Progovac
Luis Vicente
M Lynne Murphy
Maite Taboada
Margaret Dunham
Maria Iliescu
Mark Donohue
Mary Swift
Mary Zdrojkowski
Marya Teutsch-Dwyer
Mathias Schulze
Matthias Heinz
Michael Becker
Michael Cahill
Michael Lessard-Clouston
Michael Wagner
Mira Ariel
Nancy Frishberg
Nancy Niedzielski
Nancy Stenson
Nancy Underwood
Naomi Fox
Nicole Dehe
Nobuko Koyama-Murakami
Oliver Stegen
Patricia Cabredo Hofherr
Patricia Donaher
PAUL JUSTICE
Peter Richtsmeier
Pier Marco Bertinetto
Raffaella Folli
Regina Morin
Ricardo etxepare
Rick Nouwen
Robert Englebretson
Robert Hagiwara
Robert Williams
Roberta D'Alessandro
Robin Shoaps
Roderick A. Jacobs
Rodrigo Gutiérrez-Bravo
Roland Pfau
Sarah Fish
Scott Jackson
Scott McGinnis
Seizi Iwata
Shamila Naidoo
Stanley Dubinsky
Student Linguistics Asso, the Ohio State University
Susan Fiksdal
Susan Windisch Brown
Susannah Levi
Susanne Gahl
Sven Grawunder
Taibi NOUR
Theresa Biberauer
Thor Sigurd Nilsen
Tom Roeper
Tom Zurinskas
Trudy Smoke
Veronika Koller
Virginia LoCastro
Wim Vandenbussche
Wolfgang J. Meyer
Yael Sharvit
Yoonjung Kang
- Plus 5 anonymous donors
DONORS (Up to $50)
Adam Buchwald
Adrienne Bruyn
Agnes Sandor
Albert Ortmann
Amina Mettouchi
Andrea Berez
Andrew Koontz-Garboden
Anja Steinlen
Ann Sawyer
Anne Reboul
Anne-Michelle Tessier
Anubha Kothari
Barbara Zurer Pearson
Betty Phillips
Bonny Sands
Brook Danielle Lillehaugen
Catharine Vollmer
Catherine Fortin
Cathryn Donohue
Catie Berkenfield
Chris Sams
Christel de Bruijn
Christopher Becker
David Gaatone
David Goss-Grubbs
David Oshima
Della Chambless
Diana Apoussidou
Dimitrios Ntelitheos
Dipika Mukherjee
Donald F. Reindl
Donna Cromer
Douglas Ball
E. Allyn Smith
Eileen Smith
Elena Battaner-Moro
Elisabeth COTTIER FÁBIÁN
Erik Willis
Fay Wouk
Feride Erku
Galit W. Sassoon
George Williams
Hans Lindquist
Harry Feldman
Hedde Zeijlstra
Heidi Lorimor
Heike Zinsmeister
Helen Stickney
Isabel Perez Jimenez y Norberto Moreno Quiben
Istvan Kecskes
Jacqueline Lecarme
Jacques Jayez
Janet M. Smith
Janice Boynton
Janneke ter Beek
Jason Whitt
Jean-Marc Dewaele
Jenifer Larson-Hall
Jesse Mortelmans
Joanna Lowenstein
John Beavers
Jon Brennan
Jonathan Glenn
Jorge E Porras
Josep Alba
Joshua Viau
Joyce Milambiling
Judith Pine
Judith Tonhauser
Julie Bruch
Karl Reinhardt
Kat Dziwirek
katherine martinez
Katja Jasinskaja
Keir Moulton
Keira Gebbie Ballantyne
Kent Johnson
Kevin Bretonnel Cohen
Koscielecki Marek
Laurie Poulson
Lawrence Rosenwald
Levinson
Lilia Ruiz Debbe
Linda Apse
Lise Dobrin
Lotus Goldberg
Lynsey Wolter
M Victoria Vazquez Rozas
Magnús Snædal
Maher Awad
Mai Kuha
Marek Koscielecki
Margot Rozendaal
Marian Sloboda
Marisol del-Teso-Craviotto
Martin Warin
Mary C. Gruber
Mary Paster
Maurice Wong
Max Wheeler
Mayrene Bentley
Michael Barrie
Michael Maxwell
Michael Pickering
Michelle Fullwood
Miguel Ayerbe
Mike Matloff
Mohammad Haji-Abdolhosseini
Mohammad Jaber
Nancy Melucci
Nancy Stern
Nicholas Fleisher
Olga Gurevich
Pamela Jordan
Peter Slomanson
Pierre Francois Cintas
Rachel Fournier
Raffaella Zanuttini and Bob Frank
Randall Gess
Rebecca T. Cover
Richard Winters
Robert Port
Ron Schaefer
Ronald Schaefer
Sadie Williams
Sandra W. Smith
Sebastian Rasinger
Sergio Baauw
Sherril Condon
Shih-Jen Huang
Shlomo Izre'el
Simona Herdan
Sonya Bird
Stefan Dollinger
Stefan Frisch
Steven Hartman-Keiser
Sumayya Racy
Susan D Fischer
Suzanne Aalberse
Suzanne K. Hilgendorf
Suzette Haden Elgin
Tamina Stephenson
Tania Zamuner
Thera Crane
Theres Grueter
Tomohiro Yanagi
Ute Smit
V J Fedson
Valeria Quochi
Vera Demberg
Vivienne Rogers
Walcir Cardoso
Will Fitzgerald
Winifred Davies
Xose Luis Regueira-Fernandez
Yosuke Sato
Yuri & Mio Backhaus
- Plus 25 anonymous donors
******************************************************
MAJOR SUPPORTING PUBLISHERS
Blackwell Publishing
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com
Cambridge University Press
http://us.cambridge.org
Cascadilla Press
http://www.cascadilla.com/
Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd
http://www.continuumbooks.com
Edinburgh University Press
http://www.eup.ed.ac.uk/
European Language Resources Association
http://www.elda.org/sommaire.php
Georgetown University Press
http://www.press.georgetown.edu
Hodder Arnold
http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk
John Benjamins
http://www.benjamins.com/
http://www.benjamins.nl/
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
http://www.erlbaum.com/
Lincom GmbH
http://www.lincom.at
www.lincom.at
MIT Press
http://mitpress.mit.edu/
Mouton de Gruyter
http://www.mouton-publishers.com
Multilingual Matters
http://www.multilingual-matters.com/
Oxford University Press
http://www.oup.com/us
http://www.oup.co.uk
Palgrave Macmillan
http://www.palgrave.com
Rodopi
http://www.rodopi.nl/
Routledge (Taylor and Francis)
http://www.routledge.com/
Springer
http://www.springeronline.com
OTHER SUPPORTING PUBLISHERS
Anthropological Linguistics
http://www.indiana.edu/~anthling/
CSLI Publications
http://cslipublications.stanford.edu/
Graduate Linguistic Students' Assoc. Umass
http://glsa.hypermart.net/
International Pragmatics Assoc.
http://ipra-www.uia.ac.be/ipra/
Kingston Press Ltd
http://www.kingstonpress.com/
Linguistic Assoc. of Finland
http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/sky/
MIT Working Papers in Linguistics
http://web.mit.edu/mitwpl/
Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics / Landelijke
http://www.lotpublications.nl/
Pacific Linguistics
http://pacling.anu.edu.au/
SIL International
http://www.ethnologue.com/bookstore.asp
St. Jerome Publishing Ltd.
http://www.stjerome.co.uk
Utrecht institute of Linguistics
http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/
******************************************************
INSTITUTIONS
Aptima, Inc.
Arizona State University
Bilkent University
Birkbeck, University of London
Bucknell University
CACI International Inc.
City University of Hong Kong
Concordia University
DarthDex
Dictaphone
Dublin City University
EML Research gGmbH
European Academy Bozen/Bolzano
European Bioinformatics Institute
European Science Foundation ESF
Franklin Electronic Publishers, Inc.
Gallaudet University
Georgetown University
H5 Technologies
Harvard University Institute of English Language
International Linguistic Association
Janya Inc.
Language Analysis Systems, Inc.
Lund University
McGill University
Michigan State University
Microsoft Corporation
National Security Agency
National Tsing Hua University
North-West University
Northeastern Illinois University
Northwestern University
OFAI - Austrian Research Inst. for AI
Priberam Informática
Rozetta
Simon Fraser University
Stanford University
SVOX AG
Swarthmore College
SYSTRAN Software Inc.
Szanca Solutions, Inc.
Thomson Legal & Regulatory
Tufts University
UCLA
Universitaet Konstanz
Universitaet Leipzig
University of Alberta
University of British Columbia
University of Calgary
University of Cambridge
University of Chicago
University of Cincinnati
University of Cyprus
University of Edinburgh
University of Florida
University of Fribourg, Suisse
University of Geneva - ETI
University of Goettingen
University of Hamburg
University of Heidelberg
University of Helsinki
University of Illinois
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC)
University of Konstanz
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban
University of Leipzig
University of Maryland
University of Maryland, College Park
University of Melbourne
University of Michigan
University of Oregon
University of Oslo
University of Pittsburgh
University of Potsdam
University of Reading
University of Rochester
University of Southampton
University of Southern Denmark
University of Stuttgart
University of Texas at Austin
University of Victoria
Universität Tübingen
Université de Neuchâtel
Université du Québec à Montréal
Voice Signal Technologies
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
Respond to list|Read more issues|LINGUIST home page|Top of issue
|
