LINGUIST List 10.999

Mon Jun 28 1999

Review: Braine: Non Native Educators in ELT

Editor for this issue: Andrew Carnie <carnielinguistlist.org>



What follows is another discussion note contributed to our Book Discussion Forum. We expect these discussions to be informal and interactive; and the author of the book discussed is cordially invited to join in. If you are interested in leading a book discussion, look for books announced on LINGUIST as "available for discussion." (This means that the publisher has sent us a review copy.) Then contact Andrew Carnie at carnielinguistlist.org

Directory

  • Mae Wlazlinski, book review: Braine's Non-Native

    Message 1: book review: Braine's Non-Native

     Date: Fri, 25 Jun 1999 17:43:16 -0400
    From: Mae Wlazlinski <mwlazlinwestga.edu>
    Subject: book review: Braine's Non-Native




    Braine, George. (Ed.) (1999). Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. 233 pages.

    Reviewed by Mae Wlazlinski, State University of West Georgia

    Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching comprised of 13 chapters, significantly contributes to the scant literature on non-native educators of English (NNSs). It is authentic, informative, and accessible. As the number of non-native English language teaching graduates grows continuously and their presence in professional circles increases noticeably, the need to understand and define their place in the role of English teachers in an asymmetrical society where the teaching of English is traditionally allocated to native speakers (NSs) is more valuable than ever. Contributions range from personal narratives to survey and qualitative studies. Discussions on curriculum, standards and requirements in English language teacher education programs are relevant. Compelling are the arguments and the discussion on who qualifies to teach English. Outcomes of such discussions are central to the validation of non-native English language educators. Contributors, include well-established, as well as rising, scholars/writers, all non-native English language educators from diverse geographical origins and linguistic backgrounds. They articulate their concerns and their struggles, arguing sociopolitical issues and discussing implications for teacher education. All have very important messages for both NS and NNS English language academics and educators. For the NSs, the contributors provide insights into the needs of NNSs that teacher education programs must address as well as practical information about the implementation of such programs, the strengths that NNSs bring to the profession and into their classrooms, and a most important exhortation to examine the debilitating effects of "linguistic imperialism" and the "birthright mentality" in the ELT profession. For the NNSs, they might hear similar voices and see their own struggles and triumphs mirrored in the contributors' autobiographical narratives. Above all, this book brings home the realities of a non-native English language educator status as encountered in the classroom, the community, and the profession. Finally, this book provides an indispensable resource for L2 students, teachers, teacher educators, and researchers interested in non-native English educators, second language acquisition and research, and TESOL curriculum design and implementation.

    SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS OF THE CHAPTERS

    Chapters in Parts I and II focused on personal histories and literacy biographies. Here, the contributors delineated the challenges to their legitimacy, competency, and credibility as English language educators because they are non-native speakers. As they argued sociopolitical issues, they speak directly to all non-native educators who similarly find themselves marginalized and often discriminated against in the profession that they trained for. Amin (chapter 7) urges that unspoken assumptions about who is a valid ESL teacher which is inextricably tied to the larger societal issues such as power relations, distribution of scarce resources, and social status of language users be addressed and delineated, hopefully to facilitate the legitimacy of non-White teachers. In chapter 1, Jacinta Thomas makes use of her own experiences to illustrate how the "native language fallacy" undermines her credibility as an English language practitioner. She exposes the covert and overt discriminatory practices against NNSs like herself. In hiring practices, NNSs regardless of qualifications are excluded in favor of NSs. In ELT organizations, there is lack of visibility or absence of representation of NNSs, e.g., academic journals, executive boards, etc. In classrooms, NNSs are condemned without trial, so to speak by students. Thomas describes how she is rejected outright by students who judge her qualifications by the color of her skin. This resonates with other NNS teachers' experiences which undoubtedly leave one insecure, powerless, and debilitated. NNS academics certainly share the pain of Thomas who writes: "This makes me apologetic, nervous about my ability to succeed and even lead to a kind of paranoia born of experience" (10). She adds, "The same type of uncertainty follows me as I encounter some of my NS colleagues and as I enter every class. It is my baggage" (10). Thomas also complains about the misconception/assumption of lower grading standards for non-native students, hence undermining the accomplishments of NNSs, both students and academics. Finally, Thomas points out the unique perspective that NNS teachers bring to their classrooms: "They've not only recognized but have experienced how high the stakes are when an individual struggles to acquire, not just any language, but a language of immense power. Having been there, we cannot only empathize with the students but share our stories as well" (12). In chapter 2, George Braine exposes several factors to the uneveness of the playing field for NS and NNS. Whereas academic materials and resources in ELT training are easily accessible to EL academics, teachers, and students in North America, whereas positions of power in editorial boards and professional organizations normatively belong to NSs, NNSs in the periphery countries suffer from lack or scarce good quality resources, and have very slim chance to publish in Center journals (a requirement for professional advancement) which are governed by NSs' rules. As Braine points out, it is ironic that the affirmation of diversity and multiculturalism brought by NNS students into NS classrooms, is not extended to NNSs teachers who are penalized for the same reason. Braine, like Thomas, exposes the exclusionary preference for NSs over NNSs regardless of training and education as evidenced in his experiences being discriminated against because of his minority NNS status. In chapter 3, Ulla Connor focuses on how to help ESL writers like herself and provides practical writing strategies. Through literacy autobiography which is a means of sharing one's recollection of childhood memories about learning to read and write, and in her case, my recollections dealt with the struggles and triumphs of writing in English as a second language" (29), she demystifies competent writing. She recalls personal events and describes conditions that have contributed to her development as a competent and confident writer of English. She describes how her fierce determination to master the principles of rhetorics and to succeed as an academic writer made her seek writing assistance and soak in lessons in style, content, and language from successful academic L1 writers persist ently and continuously. She extols the virtue of collaboration in writing and publishing with L1 mentors and colleagues. In chapter 4, Xiao-ming Li challenges the explicit or implicit assumption that a non-native English teacher has a questionable cultural and linguistic identity and professional credibility. On the contrary, she sees her outsider status as a source of authority than an indication of incompetence (51). Citing evidences from her own life, she has convincingly argued that non-natives are "compensated with a larger richer repertoire of pedagogical, linguistic, and cultural knowledge that only between-the-worlds residents are privy to" (44). In chapter 5, Claire Kramsch and Wan Shun Evan Lam examine the role textuality plays in the native non-native relationship and the effect written language has on the development of a learner's social and cultural identity. They explain that instead of using writing as a means to socialize the non-natives into the ways of standardized natives, the written language can offer the opportunity to express human thoughts and feelings that non-native speakers have experienced particularly acutely. Through journal writing, reflections and diary writing about their relationship with native speakers using English, non-native speakers are offered what Kramsch and Lam call the "textual identities of the third kind experience" allowing "a sense of security that the written medium provides non-native speakers" (71). In chapter 6, A. Suresh Canagarajah questions gatekeeping practices in employment in a country whose graduate programs in TESOL benefit from large enrollment from many countries. He argues that the notion of the ideal teacher of English as a native speaker is a lame rationalization for the hidden economic, ideological, and political motivations which are congruent with the maintenance of a societal power structure that has historically subordinated minority groups. Inversely, as Cavanarajah cogently discusses, non-native speaker teachers bring irrefutable pedagogical and linguistic strengths to the profession. By linguistic principles, such as (1) all languages and dialects are of equal status, (2) accents and pronunciation are only surface features of one's language competence, (3) a language can have several variants, in this case, world Englishes, the superiority of the native speaker is a fallacy. Besides, the argument native teachers make good teachers does not have any pedagogical basis. On the contrary, studies have shown that non-native teachers because of their second language learning experiences prove to be sensitive and responsive to the affective, linguistic, and academic needs of their students. Also promoted by their second language experiences is the development of a high level of metalinguistic awareness that lends well to sound teaching strategies. Canagarajah posits that what can certainly benefit students and the profession is flagrantly ignored for the economic and political entrenchment of the native speakers, mainly the dominant majority group. Canagarajah also exposes the reality in the ELT employment in the Periphery where native speakers also reign supreme. When standards are set by native speakers and latest developments in teaching methodologies and materials are exported to the Periphery, there is a great chance that they are not relevant to the existing conditions in the Periphery ELT enterprise. With all the inequities caused by the native speaker fallacy, Canagarajah asks to debunk the fallacy and clamors for "free competition, open sharing of products and ideas, open employment prospects for both Center and Periphery ELT professionals" (88). In chapter 7, Nuzhat Amin explains that to be referred to as a non-native speaker of English is disempowering as an ESL teacher because "the referrent of the ESL classroom is the (White) native speaker" (96) and the "White accent" as the constructed norm. Worse is the case of non-White minority immigrant women who by dominant group's standards are more unauthentic because they speak English with "nonstandard accent", they are non-White, and they are women -- all of which put them in subordinated position. Amin, through her experience and those of the 5 minority immigrant teachers in her research, describes how ESL students' biases and attitudes towards minority ESL teachers retard, if not hinder them, from making progress in their profession. Amin poses that students with established biases against non-White minority teachers continually judge and adversely compare them with White teachers. Referring to existing literature, Amin uses narratives of non-White teachers who describe how they are continuously challenged by questions students ask to snare them into making mistakes or acknowledging insufficient linguistic knowledge in order to discredit them. In chapter 8, Masaki Oda contends that the power wielded by native speaker teachers of English is unjustifiably strong even in EFL settings. In the case of JALT, the TESOL affiliate in Japan, where one expects that it is more efficacious to maintain a bilingual policy in administration, information dissemination, conferences, everything leans towards exclusive use of English. This is no surprise considering that 100% of the members of the highest decision-making body are NSs. Oda disputes the unspoken expectation for members to have an advanced level of English proficiency, so they can access materials and programs, partake of the opportunities for professional advancement, or participate in the day to day affairs of an organization whose membership includes EFL, French, and Japanese as a second language teachers. The organization's exclusive support of English, according to Oda, bolsters the false superiority of the native speaker teacher which contradicts common sense and educational research findings that NNS teachers are experts of the local culture, understanding tacit assumptions in terms of expected behaviors that NS may not be privy to or do not care to validate. As such, they are likely to be more effective in the classroom. Findings from empirical research provide insights into practical concerns of NNS teacher-trainees and what all these imply for teacher education is cogently discussed by contributors in Part III of the book. In chapter 9, Keiko Samimy and Janina Brutt-Griffler describe a TESOL education program that offers a graduate seminar in which NNS students read about and discuss issues related to NNSs in the profession. They report on the results of a study that further examines the NNS and NS teachers dichotomy by asking: do the participating teachers recognize or acknowledge the difference and to what do they attribute the difference. The quantitative results show that participants acknowledge the differences in teaching styles but in no way are NNS inferior in knowledge and skills from the NS. They point out that the issue is not to make NNSs like the NSs. Instead, they suggest that teachers should be trained to be effective teachers regardless of their NNS status. The question according to them is "How qualified is the individual as an EFL teacher?" which shifts the emphasis from who you are to what you know. They propose that in TESOL methodologies, more emphasis should be placed on the multidimensionality and expertise than on nativeness or authenticity and that a special course or seminar needs to be added to the existing curricula in order to discuss specific issues and concerns related to ELT professionals from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Such a course would benefit both NS and NNS TESOL graduate students. In chapter 10, Lia D. Kamhi-Stein reports the scarcity of information regarding how teacher preparation programs incorporate curricula related to non-native professionals in the field. She stresses the responsibility of NNS teacher educators to "become agents of curriculum change" (157). Through a cross-curricular intervention program that she has developed, Kamhi-Stein believes that teacher educators in TESOL programs can significantly influence the power structure in the TESOL profession. Specifically, her program includes integrating NNS issue-related research and discussion activities throughout the curriculum (e.g., NNS issues vis-a-vis theories of L2 acquisition, teaching methodologies and curriculum design, and cultural and social factors of L2 development) as well as promoting sociopolitical consciousness through involvement of teacher-trainees in outside-the-classroom advocacy projects. These experiences prepare teacher-trainees for situations that they may encounter in their professional lives and for opportunities to turn their nonnativeness from problem to resource. In chapter 11, Jun Liu discusses the results of his qualitative study on NNS teachers' self- perceptions either as NNSs/NSs in relation to their students' perception of them as ESL professionals and how this perception impacts their ESL students from two points of view: theirs and those of their students. For example, teachers do not favor the NNS/NS dichotomy in classifying them as ESL professionals. Teachers perceive the dichotomy as disempowering, i.e., indicative of unequal power relations (certain groups are being subordinated and excluded), sole proprietorship, and an inadequate classification system to describe their multilayer and multidimensional attributes. Variability in teachers' birthplace, first language learned, skin color, age of arrival in the U.S., degree of nonnative accent, levels of English proficiency, degree of bilingualism, etc. makes self-classification to either NNS or NS too limiting. Understandably, these teachers favor a "more objective and realistic NS-NNS continuum configuration than a sharp NNS/NS dichotomy because it also implies a process in moving toward one side or the other ..." (174-5) and reduces, if not obliterates, the superiority ascribed to nativeness. Finally, Liu hopefully concludes that "If we perceive all ESL professionals on a NNS-NS continuum, then it is competence and professional growth that will define their professionalism." (175). In chapter 12, Peter Medgyes staunchly argues for the distinction between native and nonnative teachers of English and what he considers the linguistic and cultural competence of the native speakers that nonnatives can only work towards. Medgyes identifies vocabulary as an area that evidences the clear dissimilarity between NS and NNS teachers. Relating personal anecdotes, he describes how his attained "native-like" or "near native" competence in English vocabulary only has proven his "incompetence" or "inferiority" to native speakers. In view of this, he criticizes the lack of language improvement courses in NNS teacher preparation programs, particularly in EFL settings, like Hungary where exposure to NS models is limited and interaction with them few and far between. He argues that EFL professionals, trained or in-training, can better serve their students if they have better command of the English language in addition to their good grasp of teaching methodologies. I agree with Medgyes in demanding from EFL professionals an excellent command of English, but his stringent standard of assessing native competence in terms of vocabulary is not completely realistic nor objective. In fact, even in ESL situations, setting a standard may certainly lead to problems. For instance, not all native speakers of English fully understand local expressions from one geographical region to the next, so like NNSs, they too will feel inadequate and unprepared. This brings to mind my quandary in terms of setting parameters of acceptability in language use. What guidelines should be given to pre-service and in-service NS teachers in designing vocabulary lessons for ESOL students and whose standards should they base their selection on? How dogmatic or prescriptive can a language teacher educator be? Resolving these issues is not easy for several reasons: (1) linguistically, it is not correct to teach one variety of English as the standard because it suggests others are substandard, (2) some ESL professionals, trained or in-training, cling to the idea that their students and perhaps themselves will not travel outside of a 40 miles radius, making learning another variety (the standard) impractical and irrelevant. In chapter 13, Dilin Liu makes a strong case for the urgency of TESOL programs to address the special needs of NNS students/teachers in countries outside of North America, Britain, and Australia (NABA). Liu reports that "...of the students enrolled in NABA TESL/TESOL teacher education programs, close to 40% are NNSs. Most of these students will in due course return to their home countries to teach" (197). He explains that NNS TESOL students have needs different from those of NSs, therefore creating " a gap between what they learn abroad and what they face in their teaching back home" (197). Liu points out that program designers should realize that methodologies important for teachers in NABA countries may be impractical or ineffective in non-NABA countries because of significant socioeconomic and cultural differences (200). Besides, English language students in non-NABA countries may have different reasons for learning English and many would have acquired high literacy skills in their native language by the time they begin studying English. Therefore, Liu stresses the need for TESOL programs to: (1) teach NNS student/teachers how to use English idiomatically and (2) promote sociocultural competence to help both NNS and NS teacher-trainees understand deep sociocultural beliefs and values underlying surface speech behavior.

    About the Reviewer: Mae Lombos Wlazlinski, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor at the College of Education, State University of West Georgia, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate level courses in TESOL, educational research, and action research. Her research interests include social and psychological factors of bilingualism, language shift, second language acquisition, successful teaching practices in multicultural and multilingual classrooms, non-native English teachers' successful instructional strategies, and processes of language teacher education.

    Mae Lombos Wlazlinski, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Department of Middle Grades and Secondary Education State University of West Georgia Carrollton, GA 30118 USA FAX 770 836 4643 mwlazlinwestga.edu 770 836 6564 (0)