Date: 14-May-2007
From: Yasemin Kirkgoz <ykirkgozcu.edu.tr>
Subject: Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts
Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/17/17-3378.html
EDITORS: Tsui, Amy B.M.; James W. TollefsonTITLE: Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian ContextsSERIES: New Perspectives on Language & EducationPUBLISHER: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesYEAR: 2006
Yasemin Kirkgoz, Department of ELT, Lecturer in English Language Teachingat the University of Çukurova
''Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts'' is an editedcollection of papers aimed at presenting the impact of globalization onlanguage policies in Asian countries. Each chapter in the volume focuseson different aspect of the complex issue - the roles of language policiesof Asian countries in the social construction of national culturalidentities; the relationship between language, culture, and identity (vii)through the impact of globalization; and language policy responses of thegovernments based on case study experiences. The book is introduced by apreface, which lays out the background, the aim of the book, and consistsof fifteen chapters. As the editors state in the preface, in selectingcontributors to the volume, they have been guided by the decision toinclude countries which have been underrepresented in the literature onlanguage policy. Each chapter author is an Asian scholar with experienceand knowledge concerning language policy of their country, as such the bookaims to provide ''insider's perspective on each of the countries presented''(viii).
SUMMARY
The collection, edited by Tsui, Amy B.M.; James W. Tollefson consists offourteen chapters including a preface, followed by Chapter 1. The fourteenchapters of the book are organized into three parts. Part 1 entitled''Globalization and its Impact on Language Policy, Culture, and Identity''consists of five chapters. Part II ''Language Policy and the (Re)Construction of National Cultural Identity'' comprises the next threechapters in the volume (Chapters 7-10). Part III ''Language Policy andLanguage Politics: The Role of English'' covers the last four chapters inthe collection. The first and the last chapters are written by the editorsthemselves.
Chapter One ''Language Policy and construction of National Identity'',written by the editors, seems to be designed to provide a critical overviewof all the chapters that make up the collection, presenting an analyticalframework for understanding the case studies. As the editors put it,authors in this volume explore the relationship between language policy andnational cultural identity by examining the impact of globalization onseveral Asian countries and their language policy responses to it. Theauthors first present several questions related to the spread of Englishwith reference to Phillipson's (1992) ''linguistic imperialism'', arguingthat English is considered by language policy makers in Asian countries asa ''multinational tool that is essential for achieving national goals and byindividuals as an indispensable resource for personal advancement'' (p.18).While admitting that Asian countries have little choice other thanlegitimizing the hegemony of English, they argue that at the supranationallevel, the ownership of English still remains largely in the hands ofEnglish-speaking Western superpowers.
Chapter Two ''Japan's Language Policy and the 'Lost Decade''' by KayokoHashimoto examines how the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)is situated in Japanese society and how the government has responded to thepromotion of TEFL in its policy since what is known as the Lost Decade,when Japan was in search of solutions to tackle a national crisis. Thediscussion mainly focuses on the perspective that language policies aremainly cultural policies because they are connected with what canculturally be achieved. The author puts forward the idea that whilepromoting English, Japan has successfully maintained its own culturalidentity by promoting TEFL within the framework of Japaneseinternationalization and the ''good'' qualities of the Japanese culture.Hashimoto remarks that efforts have been made by the government to ensurethat the learning of English would not undermine Japanese cultural identityand cultural values.
Chapter Three ''Globalization and Language Policy in South Korea'' by YimSungwon explores globalization in the Korean context. Sungwon argues thatin the Korean context, globalization has acted as a ''catalyst fordeveloping a new sense of national identity'' (p.51). He clearly shows thatunlike many countries where the imposition of ideologies and cultures ofWestern superpowers has rendered many nations helpless, many Koreans seethe current spread of the English language and American culture as anopportunity for their nation to show itself to the world by appropriatingthe American culture and language to disseminate Korean ways of thinkingand understanding rather than seeing it as a threat to their nationalintegrity.
Chapter Four ''The construction of National Identity and Globalization inMultilingual Malaysia'' by Maya Khemlani David and Subramaniam Govindasamyis in two sections. In the first section the authors outline themultilingual and multiethnic context in which the Malaysian language policyis interpreted using a descriptive historical-discourse approach; thesecond part examines the role of English language textbooks in promotingnational identity and the global outlook of Malaysia's citizens. After anoverview of Malaysian colonial history and colonial heritage, the authorsdemonstrate the prominence being given by the leaders of the nation to theuse of English, especially in education, which they remark has led to anincrease in private English medium education as a recent response toglobalization. Adopting a discourse analytical approach to examine thetextbooks, the authors show that the textbook writers have achieved a majorgoal by introducing global values essential to contribute to the commongoal of nation building without neglecting local customs through selectingtopics and producing materials.
Chapter Five ''Remaking Singapore: Language, Culture, and Identity in aGlobalized World'' by Phyllis Ghim-Lian Chew situates Globalization inSingapore, ''an increasingly depoliticized, postcolonial, and materialisticenvironment'' (p. 75). The author first focuses on the language policy,specifically, the Speak Good English Movement (SGEM). He then surveyscontribution by Singaporeans about what makes a Singaporean and examinesdata from a recent questionnaire on language attitudes in Singapore. In theevolving global society, Chew suggests that language is not so much as asymbol of culture and nationhood but as an essential economic resourcehaving a particular value: a tool by which a nation may achieve variedgoals in the area of research, finance, manufacturing and public relations.
Chapter Six ''Transition, Culture, and Language in Cambodia'' by ThomasClayton discusses the impact of liberalization and democratization onCambodia's dominant minority cultures in relation to language choices ineducation. Clayton argues that by influencing language choice in favour ofEnglish and French the government's agenda to maintain and strengthen Khmerculture is being threatened. He points out that the Cambodian governmenthas allocated its own resources only to the national language, byextension, the Khmer culture, while leaving to others interventions thatadvance Chinese, Cham, Vietnamese and indigenous languages and cultures.Clayton also mentions that transition form a centrally planned to a Marketeconomy led to participation in a global economy, which resulted in anincrease in foreign investment. Many job opportunities were created leadingto an increase in demand for English.
Chapter Seven ''Language Policy and the construction of Identity: The Caseof Hong Kong'' by Amy B. M. Tsui discusses the language policy in theconstruction of cultural identity in the Hong Kong context. Based onHalls's framework of identity construction, Tsui examines the institutionaland socio-political processes that influenced the collective identity ofthe people of Hong Kong in the colonial and postcolonial periods, exploringthe role of language policy in these processes. She claims that during thecolonial area, the interaction between the competing forces of Britishcolonialism and Chinese nationalism, and the resistance to both movementsshaped the local identity of the people of Hong Kong.
Chapter Eight ''Multilingual and Multicultural Identities in BruneiDarussalam'' by Mukul Saxena addresses the very theme of the socioculturalphilosophies of governance embedded in Hinduism, Islamic and Westernthoughts that have shaped the national ideology, MUB, of Brunei. Saxenaremarks that by defining the nation state in terms of the national MIBideology, the Brunei government has highlighted the importance of Malayculture and language to the national identity. This relationship betweenethnicity, culture, language and identity is extended to the Muslimmonarchy. What he seems to highlight in this chapter is that the policypressures from diverse sociolinguistic practices are ''constructing,deconstructing, and reconstructing Bruneians' multilingual andmulticultural identities'' (p.158).
Chapter Nine ''Mauri or Mirage? The Status of the Maori Language in AotearoaNew Zealand in the Third Millennium'' by Richard A. Benton presents - in avery condensed and at times hard-to-process style - Maori language,culture, and contact with English since the late 18th century. Benton givesan overview of how the status of the language has been recognized andreflected in practice both within and outside the Maori ethnic communitysince initial contact with outside influences. He reports that the unequalpower relationship between English and the Maori language resulted inseveral paradoxes. Maori people were interested in preserving the Maorilanguage and culture, yet they avoided speaking it at home. They sent theirchildren to English-medium schools. Although the Maori language is anofficial language and it is used in parliamentary debates, it is hardlyused by legislators. Benton proposes an interpretation that resolves theseapparent paradoxes.
Chapter Ten ''Identity and Multilinguality: The Case of India'' by R. K.Agnihotri gives the history of the language policy in India before andafter the partition of India and Pakistan. Agnihotri clearly shows thatlanguage policy and national identity are mutually related, which he pointsout is often used for political ends. Throughout the chapter, it isdemonstrated that in India, Hindi and Urdu were separated into two distinctlanguages to serve the political end of projecting two separate identities,Hindu and Muslim during the partition process. This had an unfavourableconsequence of destroying the ethnic harmony. The dominance of Hindicontributed to the demise of Hindustani, a common language to Hindus andMuslims, generating resistance from other linguistic groups. He describeshow English, the language of colonization, remained one of the officiallanguages to counter the absolute power of Hindi.
Chapter Eleven ''Change and Permanence in Language Politics in Nepal'' bySelma K. Sonntag illustrates how the democratically elected governmentturned to the ''Nepali-only'' language policy in the early 1990s and madeSanskrit compulsory in primary and secondary education. Sonntag points outthat this reversal caused strong resistance from the ethnic minorities.Unlike in India, such resistance lead to positive outcomes as it enabledthe minorities to resolve ethnolinguistic policy matters. With regard tothe role of English, she notes that as in the case of India, Englishfunctioned as a tool for resistance against the linguistic dominance ofNepali. With the spread of English, English-medium schools increased, andconcerns have been expressed about the widening social divide resultingfrom such proliferation.
Chapter Twelve ''The Role of English in Pakistan with Special Reference toTolerance and Militancy'' by Tariq Rahman deals with the issue that thespread of English is accompanied by the propagation of liberal values inPakistan. In a survey conducted by Rahman, the English-educated elites holdmore liberal values such as peace with India, equal rights for women, andreligious tolerance, and they support militant policies. The author pointsout that due to access to English and the Internet, young people,regardless of whether elite or nonelites, can freely express themselves onvarious issues including politics, and religion. Such free expression,according to Rahman, is a breakthrough for Pakistan which he considers asan intolerant and oppressive society. Rahman also cautions that whileEnglish brings liberal and democratic values, it may also make availableneofundamentalist Islamic values.
Chapter Thirteen ''Language Policy in Education in Bangladesh'' by TaniaHossain & James W. Tollefson address three issues in language and educationin Bangladesh: the role of Bengali in the ideology of Bengali nationalism;the forces contributing to the spread of English among the elite, and thelanguage in the educational system. Hossain & Tollefson remark that thelinguistic resistance in Bangladesh to the domination of Urdu and thestruggle for the recognition of the Bengali as a co-official languageeventually turned into military resistance, which resulted in the politicalindependence of Bangladesh from West Pakistan. Bengali was declared thestate language as well as the medium of instruction in the state educationsystem. The authors discuss how English-medium education has continued forthe elite despite high rate of illiteracy. They draw attention to one ofthe educational problems: the lack of curriculum materials in Bengali meansthat higher education has to continue in the medium of English. Thislimits its access by the Bengali-medium graduates and deepens the socialdivide between those who can access it and others that cannot.
Chapter Fourteen ''Issues in Language Policy, Culture, and Identity'' byJames W. Tollefson & Amy B.M. Tsui is the final chapter summarizing themajor research issues emerging from the chapters in the volume. Theauthors agree that the answers raised at the beginning of the book toseveral policy related issues are often complex, varying in accordance withthe political and cultural context, and changeable over time. They make anumber of important points: the language policy responses of Asiancountries indicate that these countries have as much a part to play asEnglish speaking Western superpowers in legitimizing the hegemony ofEnglish. English is perceived by the policy makers as an essential tool toachieve national goals and personal achievement. The authors conclude thaton the basis of the evidence, language policy responses of countriesincluded in the volume have been largely determined by the linguisticpractices, preferences of organizations both multinational andtransnational as well as international aid agencies. They also point outthat the threat of cultural homogenization brought about by the hegemony ofEnglish has been a source of tension for Asian countries.
EVALUATION
''Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts'' is a muchwelcome addition to the scholarship on language policy, education, andsociolinguistics, particularly for its contribution of much neededempirical studies in Asian countries. It brings together a significantamount of research studies on language policies and practices in Asiancountries.
The book is certainly a must-read for anyone who is interested in issues inlanguage policies and practices in Asian countries. It is a greatsourcebook that may be used in graduate and undergraduate courses onlanguage policy, language in society and language education.
With regard to the scope, the collection provides a critical survey oflanguage policies and practices in Asian countries. The usefulness of thediscussion questions posed by the editors in the first chapter might assistreaders in thinking through the whole volume in further understanding thetopics addressed in each chapter.
Each chapter is clearly laid-out and well written, some offering excellentend-of-chapter summaries. Perhaps the most positive quality of this book isthat the authors introduce the historical and theoretical discussion on thelanguage policies of their countries from an insider's perspective. Eachchapter deals with a language policy in a different Asian country, thusmost chapters are well worth the time it takes to read. The content iscertainly not difficult to read, since it is presented in a very clear andfactual manner.
Another welcome contribution of this book is that each chapter addresses adifferent aspect of the complex issue - the roles of language policies of aparticular Asian country in the social construction of national culturalidentities, and the relationship between language, culture, and identitythrough the impact of globalization, and approaches adopted by thegovernment of the respective country, drawing on case study experiences.
Overall, I have found the volume to be cohesive, resourceful andwell-written. I would highly recommend this book to those involved inlanguage policy and planning. The detail of discussion makes this book anextremely useful reference for those involved in language policy issues.
REFERENCES
Phillipson, R. (1992) Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER
Yasemin Kirkgoz is an Assistant Professor in the Department of EnglishLanguage Teaching at the University of Çukurova, Turkey. Her researchinterests include influence of globalization on language policy,English-medium education and classroom based research.
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