Date: 06-Mar-2010
From: Leah Paltiel-Gedalyovich <leah.gedalyovichgmail.com>
Subject: First Language Acquisition
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Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/20/20-343.html
AUTHOR: Clark, Eve V.TITLE: First Language AcquisitionPUBLISHER: Cambridge University PressYEAR: 2009
Leah R. Paltiel-Gedalyovich, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
SUMMARY
Clark's revised edition of ''Language acquisition'' is designed as an introductorytextbook for students of first language acquisition. In an introductory chapter,Clark raises the general issues and questions related to the study of firstlanguage acquisition, illustrating her discussion with examples from a varietyof languages. She explicitly states her orientation, namely language in use; theinfluence of environment and specifically linguistic input on languagedevelopment. The book is then divided into four sections: Getting started,Constructions and meanings, Using language, and Processing in acquisition. Thereis an extensive glossary and name and subject indices follow the reference section.
Part I, 'Getting started', deals with the very beginning of children's language.It includes five chapters. The first, ''In conversation with children'' presentsthe central role of communication in language development. Context plays acritical role, as do conventions of language meaning and the principle ofcontrastive forms representing contrastive meanings. Children's language input,'child-directed speech' is described as relatively complete and error free,designed both in terms of linguistic, communicative and acoustic properties topromote successful learning; a good quality stimulus for infants and children.The argument against an innate language acquisition mechanism begins in thischapter and is continued throughout the text. Clark points out that SocialEconomic Status and social group affects the interaction of parents withchildren and ultimately the pattern of language development.
Chapter 3, ''Starting on language: Perception'', deals with how children analyzethe speech stream in order to enter the conversation. Children have to learn howto segment the speech stream into linguistically useful units, how to deal withthe variance of the acoustic signal, and how to work out which sounds and soundpatterns are significant for their language. The critical role of the auditorysystem in determining the human (and animal) abilities to discriminate speechsounds is emphasized. The interaction of child-directed speech and acousticabilities leads to successful perception of speech units.
Chapter 4 is ''Early words''. Once children have learned how to handle the speechstream, they must learn how to map adult words onto meanings and express theirown meanings. Clark points out the individual variability in early languagedevelopment and the range of ages for first words and early vocabularymilestones. Word production is influenced by recognition of the symbolic natureof language, but articulatory motor skills are critical. Comprehension ofvocabulary generally exceeds production. Memory plays a role in both.Children's initial hypotheses of word meanings are based both on conceptualknowledge and social knowledge. Different strategies used by children, such asoverextension are discussed.
Chapter 5 is entitled ''Sounds in words: Production''. Producing first wordsinvolves a transition from babbling to making more and more consistent, and moreand more adultlike approximations of target words. This chapter includes asummary of different processes children use to simplify production. Ease ofarticulation plays a major role in the patterns children use, but here too thereis great individual difference. There is an interaction between children'svocabulary development and articulatory precision. Practice also plays animportant role. Sometimes this practice which occurs in non-communicativespeech, reflects a meta-linguistic awareness of their own articulatoryabilities. The distinction between new and given information begins to play a role.
The final chapter of the first section of the book, chapter 6, is entitled''Words and meanings''. The orientation is again communicative. Children acquirenew meanings by taking part in communicative interchanges where speakers'intentions and context make primary contributions. Conceptual and social factorsplay important roles. It has been argued that children are endowed withconstraints that guide the acquisition of word meaning. Instead, Clark arguesfor the importance of social context in learning meaning. The central role ofpragmatics in meaning acquisition is concentrated in two principles:conventionality and contrast. Children propose a hypothesis about word meaningand modify this hypothesis based on adult feedback and adult usage.
Part II 'Constructions and meaning', includes 5 chapters. This section dealswith how children expand their ability to express meanings. The section beginswith chapter 7, ''First combinations, first constructions''. Children learn to usethe specific constructions of their language to express particular meanings.Previous trends such as the influence of articulatory dexterity on utterancelength and complexity are apparent here as well. In this chapter, Clarkemphasizes the role of research in investigating children's first utterances.This includes the examination of early processes and the subsequent deeperexamination of possible causes/explanations for the processes observed. Earlystudies described types of multi-word utterances and the distribution of wordtypes. Later studies put greater emphasis on communicative intent; from theirfirst utterances, children choose to express new information. Children'sknowledge of grammatical categories only becomes recognizable once they usemorphology. Three stages can be identified: frozen forms, intermediate forms andconstructed forms, as children move from restricted use of lexical items in asingle combination to productive use of items in multiple combination types.
Chapter 8 is ''Modulated word meanings''. Different languages expand theinformation included in single words through a variety of inflectionalmechanisms. There is individual difference between children and variability inthe patterns of acquisition across languages. Using inflections requiresknowledge of inflectional meaning, rules of placement and which inflectionsbelong to which word classes. Semantic bootstrapping helps recognize syntacticclasses; syntactic bootstrapping helps derive meanings from unfamiliar wordshaving familiar forms. The role of input, including frequency of morphologicalforms is seen as central to acquisition. Innate theories are consistent withsyntactic bootstrapping. Semantic bootstrapping does not posit innate linguisticabilities. Word classes are the result of conceptual categories combined withexposure to adult morphology and syntax. Computer models support the acquisitionof word classes from exposure to child-directed speech. Data is broughtsupporting early child inflections as the result of schemas - not rules. Rulesrely on attending to the input and adding inflection. Schemas rely on attendingto the output and judging whether the schema is met or the output must beadjusted to meet the schema.
Chapter 9 is ''Adding complexity within clauses''. Added complexity includesadding discourse information about the relationship between the child'scommunication and the discourse as well as adding precision. This chapterreturns to the issue of given and new information, and how these are coded indifferent languages. Commonly investigated phenomena like children's earlysubject omission are explained in terms of a combination of discourse,performance, typological and phonological factors. These data provide evidenceagainst a grammatical, parameter setting account. Clark argues against innatepreferences for certain argument patterns being linked to certain grammaticalrelations. Children gradually acquire constructive alternations which reflectdifferences in the speakers' perspective. They learn to contrast on the basis ofsemantic information primarily.
Chapter 10 is ''Combining clauses: More complex constructions''. In the previouschapter increasing complexity by increasing the complexity of clauses wasdiscussed. In this chapter, increasing complexity by linking clauses is added.The increased complexity serves a communicative purpose of allowing increasedprecision of referents, time or space. More complex clausal combinations improvethe flow of information, more complex relations and events can be expressed, andincrease the range (and subtlety) of communicative purposes. The development ofrelative clauses, complement constructions, temporal constructions, clausalconstructions, and conditionals is described. Language typology influences theage and error patterns of acquisition. General patterns across languages whichare suggested, e.g., a preference not to break linguistic units in embedding,reflect general performance strategies which are independent of the linguisticanalysis of the target construction.
Chapter 11, ''Constructing words'', takes a different direction, honing in at theword level. Increased vocabulary promotes increased analysis of words to allowsubsequent synthesis of word parts into new words by processes of compoundingand derivation. Children's mastery of compounding and derivation is influencedby the frequency of their exposure to the word roots and affixes. Children'sstrategies for analysis of compound words reflect their language typology. Clarkshows this by comparing similar processes in very different languages. Differentstrategies (or rules) may be used for comprehension and production. Transparencyand simplicity guide word coinage. The frequency of choice of affixes/paradigmsreflects adult usages. Deixis and word-coinage are two strategies used bychildren to overcome the gaps in their vocabularies.
Part III of the volume deals with 'Using Language'. This section consists ofthree chapters. The first is ''Honing conversational skills''. Clark lists fourrules for successful conversation: joint attention, consideration of hearerknowledge, choosing speech acts appropriate for proposed meanings, andturn-taking. Each of these is discussed in this chapter. Four stages in settingup a conversation are described which result in joint attention (the commonground) and the addition of new information regarding the object of thisattention. Part of the adult role is to provide scaffolding for the child'scontributions. Various functions of repetition are enumerated. Two primaryfunctions are acceptance of adult terms and experimentation with new terms.There are communicative as well as acquisitional functions of repetition, forchildren and adults. Part of learning to communicate involves learning toexpress a variety of speech acts. A further skill children develop is theability to recognize communication breakdown and make repairs (as speakers) andaccept repairs offered by others (as hearers).
The second chapter in this section, chapter 13 is ''Doing things with language''.Part of what children learn to do with language is to establish social roles anddifferent registers for themselves and interpret such roles in others. Childrenlearn how and when to be polite. These different roles and registers haveexpression in all aspects of language: morpho-syntax, vocabulary, phonology andprosody. Part of role learning includes learning the speech and languagebehaviors consistent with each gender. They also learn an increasing number ofspeech acts, including the knowledge that a single form can serve multiplefunctions and a single function can be achieved with multiple forms. Some typesof pragmatic knowledge develop through childhood and adolescence while othertypes reach adultlike levels in childhood. In some cases they are less adept asin the case of using pronouns or choosing definite (for given information)versus indefinite (for new information) articles. Children's knowledge of scalarimplicatures is briefly discussed.
School discourse breaks most of the regular rules of language for communication.This may often result in inaccurate evaluation of children's knowledge.
The final chapter of this section is chapter 14 ''Two languages at a time''. Thesocial aspect of bilingualism (or bi-dialecticism) is emphasized. The majorityof the world is bi (or multi-) lingual. The degree to which speakers of morethan one language are proficient in each language varies greatly. There is noclear picture yet of how these speakers process each of the languages. From thebabbling stage, children appear to be acquiring two distinct language systems.Social factors and exposure are critical factors in acquisition of multiplelanguages as for single language. Speakers learn to think in a way which isexpressible in their chosen language.
The final part of the book, 'Process in acquisition', includes two chapters. Thefirst is chapter 15, ''Specialization for language''. This chapter discussesissues of brain specialization for language skills, sensitive periods forlanguage acquisition, and possible language-specific innate mechanisms.
Three questions were asked in the chapter: (1) Is there specialization forlanguage? A relatively positive answer to this question is given based onneuro-imaging techniques (briefly presented) and early lesion studies, while therole of the right hemisphere in cases of visual systems such as sign languagesis noted. (2) Is there a critical period for language acquisition? The answerhere is unclear. Time invested in language learning favors younger kids butlearning abilities favor older kids. Studies of feral children or children wholacked stimulation in early childhood have been used to argue for a 'criticalperiod' for language acquisition. Clark uses these studies, as well as studiesof second language learning, to argue an opposing view, namely that withoutappropriate social, emotional (and communication) input, children do not developlanguage. (3) Is there an innate language acquisition device? Here the answeris probably positive but with the qualification that this device is not specificto language. An explicit argument against the Chomskyan hypothesis of innatelanguage (and its variations) is presented. Clark suggests that the debateshould not be about innate or learned language structures but about innate oracquired language learning mechanisms. The data from impaired populations as asupport for the modularity of language is challenged. Particularly, the study ofimpairment as a basis for learning about normative development is criticized.
The final chapter of this section and of the book is ''Acquisition and change''.The first perspective is continuity of child language functions in acquiringlanguage. There is great individual variation, not only in developmentalpatterns but also in the proficiency eventually reached. The stages ofacquisition are reviewed, reiterating arguments and references already presentedin previous chapters. The relationship between comprehension and production inacquisition patterns is expanded. The central guiding principle of communication(meaning and function) is seen as the ultimate guide for language acquisition(rather than structure).
Clark argues that the poverty of the stimulus argument is simply wrong - thestimulus is rich and provides an adequate model for language acquisition.
EVALUATION
In her revised text, Clark takes a clear theoretical orientation, one that seescommunication and environment as central to the language acquisition process.Throughout the description and explanation of language acquisition from theearly stages, the data brought is interpreted in terms of support for this view,although a direct theoretical argument is presented most clearly only in thefinal section.
The text covers a vast amount of material in terms of the detail of the researchbrought and the breadth of the description of early language acquisition. Thestyle is clear, although I found the use of linguistic terminology inconsistent.The glossary aids this situation but at times this impeded the ease of readingthe text.
Each chapter includes tables which summarize the content or list illustrativeexamples. A short summary of each chapter also aids in organizing the mainpoints for the reader. Still I found the summaries uneven in terms of theirdetail, with some chapters summarized in greater detail than others.
The nature of the text involves frequent references to issues and phenomenadiscussed in other chapters. The same phenomenon may appear in several chapters,each time brought to illustrate a different point. At times I found thisrepetitive. Furthermore, cross-references in the text are inconsistent, where insome instances the exact reference in other chapters is given, while in others,there is no explicit reference to where the phenomenon is discussed in anotherpart of the book.
In general, I found this text a readable and comprehensive text on languageacquisition. The use of research reports, examples integrated in the theoreticalargumentation, provides a strong basis for further study in language acquisition.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER
Leah R. Paltiel-Gedalyovich is a practicing speech-language pathologist who combines clinical work with research into clinical applications of theoretical linguistics, particularly the semantic-pragmatic interface in first (Hebrew) language acquisition, developmental language assessment and issues in clinical phonology.
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