LINGUIST List 32.907
Fri Mar 12 2021
Review: General Linguistics: Yule (2020)
Editor for this issue: Billy Dickson <billydlinguistlist.org>
Date: 18-Jul-2020
From: Claudia Sanchez <csanch4
ilstu.edu>
Subject: The Study of Language
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AUTHOR: George Yule
TITLE: The Study of Language
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2020
REVIEWER: Claudia Sanchez, Illinois State University
SUMMARY
In the introduction we learn that this 7th edition has been updated with 40 new study questions, 20 new tasks and changes to the chapters on phonetics (Chapter Three) and semantics (Chapter Nine). The online study guide has also been updated including now more resources and tutorials.
Chapter One, “The Origins of Language” presents different theories regarding how language originated. It includes the theory of a divine source, found in Herodotus’s report on pharaoh Psammetichus’s experiment with two newborn babies and King James’s similar experiment; the natural sound source including the ‘Bow-wow’ theory relying on onomatopoeia as origins of language, and the ‘Pooh-pooh’ theory proposing speech development from emotional circumstances. Other possible sources include the musical source, (the belief that human language origins may be due to the production of sounds before language); the social interaction source, including the ‘yo-he-ho’ theory involving sounds needed to coordinate physical activity among several people; the physical adaptation source, showing how the human vocal tract and skeletal changes favored human bodies to produce language; the tool-making source, observing the belief that manual gestures may have been a precursor of language due to the development of hands and the capacity of making tools; and lastly, the genetic source, including the innate hypothesis.
Chapter Two, “Animals and Human Language” starts explaining how communicative signals must be differentiated from informative signals. Yule also presents the term ‘glossolalia’ as humans’ ability to produce sounds in a stream that have no communicative purpose. The properties of human language are explored; we are presented with reflexivity (our ability to use language to talk about language itself), displacement (our ability to talk about things not present in the immediate environment), arbitrariness (the fact that there is no obvious or ‘natural’ connection between a linguistic form and its meaning), cultural transmission, (the way in which humans acquire language from interacting with others who share the same culture and language and not through parental genes), productivity (humans’ ability to create new expressions and manipulate linguistic resources) along with animals and their fixed reference; lastly, duality (the ability of human language to be organized at two levels simultaneously: letters and sounds that combined to produce different meaning). The last section of this chapter is about language and animals, discussing the cases of Washoe, Sarah and Lana, and Kanzi.
Chapter Three, “The Sounds of Language” emphasizes on the International Phonetics Alphabet and what it is used for and includes a definition of phonetics and the differences between articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics. Yule then turns the attention to the differences between voiced and voiceless sounds along with places of articulation. He distinguishes between familiar symbols such as bilabials, labiodentals, and alveolars first because he proposes these can be easily recognizable from the graphs that they represent. Unfamiliar symbols are considered dentals, interdentals, palatals, velars or glottals, where the symbols are not so easily recognizable for those less trained in the field. There is also an emphasis in understanding that in phonetics, sounds are transcribed and not letters. The chapter continues with manner of articulation, this being one of the sections slightly expanded in the present 7th edition. A consonant and vowel chart are also included. Glottal stops and flaps are differentiated through examples as well. Diphthongs are explored through a table that includes vowel movement from low to high and front to back. There is emphasis in understanding how diphthongs and their pronunciation differs between American and British English. The chapter ends with a commentary on individual variation when pronouncing or transcribing these vowel sounds.
Chapter Four, “The Sound Patterns of Language” is dedicated to phonology, defined as the blueprint of each sound type that may vary in different physical contexts. This is followed by a distinction between phonemes (including natural classes), phones, and their allophones. The chapter also includes a definition of complementary distribution and an explanation of how allophones come to be in such a distribution. Yule continues with minimal pairs and sets before getting into phonotactics. He also explains the elements of a syllable (onset and rhyme) and specifies that the rhyme consists of a nucleus and coda. Additionally, consonant clusters are analyzed. To finalize, coarticulation effects are presented, from assimilation, nasalization, to elision, Yule explains how these processes are part of everyone’s normal speech and cannot be avoided.
Chapter Five, “Word Formation” includes an exploration of neologisms followed by etymology and what it can help us understand about word origin and trajectory. The rest of the chapter consists of a compilation of different word processes; the first is borrowing (when any given language adopts a word from another language). A specific type of borrowing is loan-translation or calque, such as the French ‘gratte-ciel’ that translates to “scrape-sky”. The next process is compounding (when two separate words are joined to form a new one such as ‘textbook’). Blending (when only the beginning of one word joins the end of the second) is defined as a specific case of compounding. After that comes clipping (when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form); two clipping kinds are hypocorisms (when a word is reduced to a single syllable and -y or -ie is added to the end), and backformation (when “a word of one type (usually a noun) us reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb)). Conversion (when a noun is converted into a verb) is also added to the list of word processes, and Yule notes that it can greatly affect the meaning of certain words. Next comes Coinage (a new word is invented sometimes sourced from names of commercial products); when based on someone’s name, they are eponyms, and when a new word is formed from the initials of a set of words they are acronyms. Lastly, we have Derivation (using affixes to modify words and create terms with new meaning). Yule also differentiates between prefixes, suffixes, and infixes and shows how exactly these follow patterns in word formation. The chapter ends with a reflection on how these terms normally arise across time and on how multiple instances of these can affect the same word.
Chapter Six, “Morphology” states the function and definition of morphemes; Yule classifies them into free and bound morphemes, lexical and functional morphemes, derivational, and inflectional morphemes. The chapter continues exploring morphological description exemplifying it through a sentence analysis. Moreover, morphs, allomorphs, and special cases such as zero morph are explained, followed with cases from other languages such as Kanuri, Ganda, Ilocano, and Tagalog.
Chapter Seven, “Grammar” begins defining and describing traditional grammar. Parts of speech (nouns, articles, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, and conjunctions) are explored right after, all of them including usage context and examples. Another important element included is agreement and how it is partially based on number, person, tense, voice (active or passive), and gender (natural). An important distinction is made between natural gender (based on biological gender) and grammatical gender (based on the type of noun). After that, the chapter focuses on differentiating between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to grammar; using Captain Kirk’s infinitive (“to boldly go”) to exemplify the prescriptive approach, and structural and constituent analysis for a descriptive approach, Subjects and Objects are also studied and distinguished from one another with some examples. Word order is discussed through language typology, and the chapter concludes with a rationale about the importance of studying grammar.
Chapter Eight, “Syntax” focuses on the importance of syntactic rules and generative grammar in composing well-formed structures. These structures allow us to observe a deep and surface in sentence structure. Yule explains that surface structure would be the syntactic forms, while the deep structure “is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented” (p.114). Yule continues by explaining that, while two sentences may have the same surface structure, the differences can lay in the deep structure, where the interpretation is different. This is explained as structural ambiguity. Another important element included in the section is syntactic analysis. The last third of the chapter encompasses phrase and structure rules, lexical rules, and tree diagrams, through which the idea of how structures must follow a certain order is settled. To finalize, the chapter recognizes that these rules and structures are “just scratching the surface” (p.119) but that the materials explored will help move into the study of Semantics.
Chapter Nine, “Semantics” starts with a distinction between referential meaning, and associative or emotive meaning. The section notes that in the study of referential meaning, sentences can be syntactically sound, but semantically odd and this is because the components of the referential meaning of words must correlate with the nouns and verbs used with it. This is clarified in the next section where Yule explains that every word has semantic features that qualify them to be used along with other nouns or verbs. These features can be used through componential analysis to explain how words are connected. However, Yule advises that this approach does not come without problems; conceiving words as simple containers of meaning is restrictive and not very practical. Consequently, semantic roles are explored right after, and includes descriptions of agent, theme, instrument, experiencer, location, source, and goal, along with examples. After that, the focus moves onto lexical relations (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, prototypes, homophones and homonyms, polysemy, word play and metonymy). Lastly, the chapter focuses on collocation and concordance, and how it relates to corpus linguistics.
Chapter Ten, “Pragmatics” begins by explaining that pragmatics consists of the invisible meaning of what we say. For this topic, context becomes of great importance, and so Yule presents a distinction of physical and linguistic context that can affect the interpretation of a message. But the ambiguity of language goes beyond context; deixis and deictic expressions are introduced then, as words used to refer to people, places, and times. After that, Yule explains that “words themselves don’t refer to anything” (p.153), we give words their meaning through reference. Two kinds of references are presented: inferences (making connections between what is being said and what is meant), and anaphora/cataphora (referring to an antecedent or vice versa). Other elements presented are presuppositions, pragmatic markers, and politeness; within politeness, the concepts of positive and negative face are briefly explained. Consequently, the next section includes speech acts (direct/indirect) and what they mean for whoever is communicating through them.
Chapter Eleven, “Discourse Analysis” begins defining discourse as “language beyond sentence” (p.168) and elaborates on how interpreting discourse involves some key elements. Starting with cohesion, Yule explains that this refers to connections within texts. On the other hand, coherence
(or the connection between parts of the discourse) is an element instantiated by pronouns and conjunctions. A theory to analyze discourse is conversation analysis and Yule explains that, in conversation, individuals take turns at speaking, signaled by completion points. Turn-taking, pauses and filled pauses, adjacency pairs, and insertion sequences are then expanded upon. Next, the co-operative principle is defined, and items such as hedges, and implicatures are included. Lastly, background knowledge when reaching interpretations is noted, and the concepts of schemas and scripts are explored in relation to such interpretations.
Chapter Twelve, “Language and the Brain” starts by introducing neurolinguistics with the case of Phineas P. Gage and how he sparked the study of language as related to the brain. The chapter continues exploring the brain areas related to language: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the motor cortex, and arcuate fasciculus. Yule explains that while it is tempting to assume certain parts of the brain oversee language, this localization view is a simplified view. The following section explores tongue tips and slips (tip of the tongue phenomenon, malapropisms, slips of the tongue and spoonerisms), slips of the brain (perseveration, anticipation, and exchange) and slips of the ear. Next there is a section on aphasias (Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and conduction) with descriptions and speech examples. The chapter also explores dichotic listening tests and expands on how left and right parts of the brain are involved in this process. As an introduction to the next chapter, there is one last paragraph about the critical period and the case of Genie.
Chapter Thirteen, “First Language Acquisition” begins defining acquisition and the importance of input within it (caregiver speech). The chapter then moves onto the acquisition schedule: cooing, babbling, the one-word stage, the two-word stage, and telegraphic speech being the different stages elaborated on, including age ranges and speech samples. Following, Yule makes a distinction between schedule and process. Among the strategies explored are learning through imitation and correction. Inevitably the next stages take us to investigate the development of morphology (including overgeneralization) and syntax (including the different stages in forming questions and negatives). To finish, there Yule elaborates on the development of semantics, and the concept of overextension and offers insight into later developments.
Chapter Fourteen, “Second Language Acquisition/Learning” begins by differentiating between acquisition and learning and points out the differences between English as a foreign language and English as a second language. After that, acquisition barriers, the age factor, as well as affective factors that can affect learning, are explained. The chapter then divides in two sections: focus on teaching method and focus on the learner. Regarding focus on teaching, the following methods are explored: grammar translation, audiolingual, and communicative approaches. In regard to focus on the learner, there is an analysis of the concepts of transfer (both positive and negative), interlanguage (including fossilization), motivation (instrumental and integrative), input and output and the importance of simplified speech, and lastly, task-based learning. The chapter concludes that achieving communicative competence will depend on grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic mastery of the language.
Chapter Fifteen, “Gestures and Sign Languages” is dedicated to American sign language. The chapter begins with a distinction between gestures and emblems. Yule then elaborates on gestures and their characteristics (iconics, deictics, and beats). Furthermore, the chapter differentiates between two general categories: alternate sign languages (developed by speakers for limited communication where language cannot be used) and primary sign language (the first language of people who do not use spoken language). After that, there is a brief historical review that includes information on the method ‘oralism’, followed by Signed English, a system to facilitate interaction between the deaf and hearing. Additionally, there is a brief introduction of the origins of ASL followed by a description of how signs are structured (shape and orientation, location, movement, primes, facial expressions and finger-spelling). The chapter ends with a recognition of ASL as having all the linguistic characteristics found in spoken language, and Yule explains that children acquiring ASL as their first language go through similar developmental stages as children learning spoken language.
Chapter Sixteen, “Written Language” consists of 3 main sections: phonographic, syllabic, and alphabetic writing. The chapter begins with a historical introduction to writing and the concept of pictograms as related to cave drawings to record events. This is followed by a definition of ideograms, as the developmental evolution from pictorial cave representations, and logograms, with Sumerians and cuneiform writing as examples. Regarding phonographic writing, Yule offers the rebus principle (when a symbol is used to represent a sound of the spoken word). For syllabic writing, Japanese writing is used as an example of symbols representing spoken syllables. Lastly, for alphabetic writing we are introduced to the concept of an alphabet, consonantal alphabets, and their role in history. The chapter specifies the origins of the English alphabet and the variation between symbol and sound. To finalize, English orthography is briefly explored, with a short explanation of the relationships between Old English phonological changes that resulted in changed spellings.
Chapter Seventeen, “Language History and Change” begins with the concept of a Proto-Indo-European language; it is defined and exemplified through a figure of the Indo-European family tree. The chapter continues explaining that cognates are used to establish possible connections between languages but that there are specific procedures to achieve this, such as comparative reconstruction, the majority principle, and the most natural development principle. Going into these principles, the processes of comparing cognates, and sound and word reconstruction are also explored. Additionally, the chapter includes a brief history of English, from Old English to Middle English. Yule also includes a section on sound changes (metathesis, epenthesis, and prothesis), syntactic changes (loss of infections), and semantic changes (broadening and narrowing of meaning). The chapter ends with a small reflection on diachronic and synchronic variation, stating that this chapter takes a diachronic view of language, and introducing the following chapter as a synchronic view.
Chapter Eighteen, “Regional Variation in Language” along with Chapters Nineteen and Twenty, focuses more on the sociolinguistic aspects of language. It begins with a reflection on standard language. Yule points at the differences between accent and dialect as well to introduce dialectology; within it, the study of regional dialects, NORMS (non-mobile, older, rural, male speakers), isoglosses, dialect boundaries and the dialect continuum are offered. Yule continues by exploring bilingualism, and the existent diglossia in some communities. Consequently, this leads the topic onto matters such as language planning strategies, with examples such as the adoption of Swahili as the national language of Tanzania. After that, the chapter focuses on pidgins, and specifically English pidgins and their syntax. The chapter ends with a brief commentary on creole languages, and the processes of creolization and decreolization.
Chapter Nineteen, “Social Variation in Language” focuses on sociolects, and the elements that can be categorized as social variables or linguistic variables. The chapter continues by giving examples of studies where variables such as education or occupation had an impact and explains the concept of idiolect. In relation to this, Yule also dives into the concept of social markers and their effect on how the speaker is perceived. The next section discusses speech style and style-shifting and including terms such as prestige (overt and covert), speech accommodation, convergence, and divergence. The chapter then moves onto register, and it differentiates between jargon and slang, as well as taboo terms. Lastly, the chapter briefly focuses on African American English and its vernacular. It offers an overview of its phonological features, and its grammar.
The final chapter “Language and Culture” begins with the concept of categories, and it explains how certain linguistic items may be lexicalized in some languages. In relation to culture, kinship terms and time concepts are also explored through examples of Norwegian, Watam, and Hopi. In terms of linguistic relativity, Yule offers the idea of linguistic determinism, and arguments for and against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Additionally, the example of snow terms in Inuktitut is used against the hypothesis. Yule expands understanding of lexicalized items by explaining that English does not lexicalize distinctions in ‘snow’ terms. The chapter also focuses on classifiers, countable and non-count nouns to explain the existence of cognitive categories. Lastly, to explore social categories, there is an emphasis on address terms and gender. Within gender, Yule explores the concepts of social gender, gendered words (including an approach to more gender-neutral language), gendered structures and speech (including pitch and tag questions), same-gender talk, and gendered interactions.
EVALUATION
The Study of Language covers language from its smallest units all the way to the interactions and implications of language and culture, making it an excellent and concise overview suitable for anyone wanting to understand the basics of linguistics. Additionally, chapters have been organized in a way that makes reading an intuitive and accessible experience. Overall, the book is user friendly and non-threatening to those who are just getting started in the discipline. Although the project in this book may seem ambitious, it is intelligently approached; chapters have been carefully planned and they progress smoothly. Moreover, the study questions and tasks at the end of each chapter provide an engaging, interactive, and fun opportunity to revisit the content in the chapters; the addition of more content in certain sections, and the expanded study questions, not only invite students to challenge their understanding of content but also promote further research though tasks that allow students to take their learning even further. In sum, while the work included in the book is quite large, Yule has done an excellent job polishing content throughout its editions.
This is unequivocally a best-selling, internationally acclaimed book that has proven to be ideal for beginners when it comes to an introduction to linguistics. Given the fact that this is the 7th edition of the book, it is clear it has impressed many minds across the world and will continue to shed light onto linguistics and inspiring more and more generations of students.
REFERENCES
Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language (7th ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER
Claudia Sanchez is a PhD candidate specializing in Sociolinguistics and TESOL at Illinois State University. She is also an Adjunct Professor of English at Millikin University. Her research interests include perceptual dialectology, language ideologies, attitudes toward language, and minority language documentation and preservation.
Page Updated: 12-Mar-2021