Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/34.3604

EDITOR: Jennifer Cabrelli
EDITOR: Adel Chaouch-Orozco
EDITOR: Jorge González Alonso
EDITOR: Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares
EDITOR: Eloi Puig-Mayenco
EDITOR: Jason Rothman
TITLE: The Cambridge Handbook of Third Language Acquisition
SERIES TITLE: Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2023

REVIEWER: Maria Laura Mecias

SUMMARY

Part I: Theoretical Approaches to L3/Ln
Chapter1: Generative Approaches (González Alonso)
Generative perspectives on third or subsequent language acquisition are relatively new within the broader fields of generative linguistics and multilingualism studies. Despite their recent emergence, these approaches have significantly influenced research in the past three decades, fueling interest. This chapter overviews key concepts, theories, and models that shape generative approaches to L3/Ln acquisition, highlighting their distinctive features within the generative framework.
González Alonso elucidates contemporary generative methodologies for teaching L3/Ln, explaining why certain studies in this domain are framed within a generative framework. He underscores fundamental principles and inquiries derived from generative studies on L2 acquisition, advocating for exploring L3 acquisition to address crucial issues. The chapter also outlines leading models in morphosyntax, such as the Cumulative Input Threshold Hypothesis. Finally, the author discusses the growing interest in L3 development and outlines potential future directions, emphasizing the need for longitudinal L3 research.

Chapter 2: Usage-Based Approaches (Morales-Front & Sanz)

Morales-Front and Sanz explore the application of usage-based methods in studying L3 acquisition. They provide an overview of usage-based frameworks, focusing on cognitive and social aspects such as classifications, models, and adaptive systems. The chapter discusses developmental stages, interlanguage, transfer, and other factors within the context of L1 and L2 acquisition. Furthermore, it examines significant findings in multilingualism and processing, supporting ongoing debates with models like the Cumulative Enhancement Model. The authors anticipate significant progress in usage-based methods, offering valuable insights into L3-related phenomena.

Chapter 3: Dynamic Systems Theory Approaches (Jessner)

To create more appropriate frameworks for a multilingual norm, scholars have begun recognizing that multilingualism is a social and individual phenomenon. This chapter presents and updates recent international research in the field of the dynamic model of multilingualism (DMM), a systems theory applied to multilingual development and use as a model, since 2002. The author takes us through the basic ideas and historical evolution of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) focused on applied linguistics. Jessner presents the multilingual speaker/hearer as a complex psycholinguistic system comprising distinct linguistic subsystems that are interdependent rather than autonomous. A concise but thorough review of motivation, the qualitative shift between L2 and L3 development and the impact of cross-linguistic interaction are presented. Based on a synopsis of current global research, the author suggests a holistic approach for a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of changes in multilingual developmental quality.

Chapter 4: Sociolinguistic Approaches (Moyer)

The author introduces an ethnographic approach to language acquisition studies, focusing on the acquisition context and its social consequences. The chapter discusses the debate around English as a leading third language, its various varieties, social, political, and physical contexts, and its value as a commodity. Personal motivation is also a critical factor in L3 instruction. The author emphasizes the importance of considering societal ideologies, economic situations, and material conditions in learning aspects. Understanding each speaker's background can provide a more accurate perspective on learning processes. The author suggests bridging the gap between language acquisition and sociolinguistics by connecting language variation usage data.

Part II: L3/Ln across Linguistic Domains

Chapter 5: Exploring the Acquisition of L3 Phonology: Challenges, New Insights and Future Directions (Wrembel)

The chapter discusses the development of and research into L3 phonological acquisition, focusing on aspects like Voice Onset Time, vowel quality, and foreign accentedness. It emphasizes the importance of crosslinguistic influence and the shift towards examining the developmental process. The methodology favors mixed and longitudinal designs, with testing all three languages as a control measure. The chapter presents various theoretical approaches to modeling L3 phonology, including extending L2 models, adapting L3 morphosyntactic models, and proposing new models specifically for L3 learning. The "Multi-Phon" project provides insights into crosslinguistic influence in teenage multilingual phonological acquisition. Suggestions for future research in the field are provided, aiming to expand our understanding of phonological acquisition from a multilingual perspective.
Chapter 6: Characteristics of the L3 Lexicon (Lindqvist & Falk)

This chapter offers an overview of research concerning L3 vocabulary acquisition and its distinguishing features in comparison to L1 and L2 lexicons. It delves into various aspects of word knowledge, explores internal factors impacting vocabulary acquisition in a third language, and examines crosslinguistic influence (CLI). The authors explore phenomena such as attempts at word construction, code-switching, the influence of one's background language, and instances of semantic transfer leading to negative outcomes. They also delve into the role of language typology and the status of one's proficiency in L2 in CLI, highlighting how proficiency in L3 can influence this dynamic. Additionally, they explore positive transfer effects, demonstrating how cognates and knowledge from both L1 and L2 can facilitate learning. The chapter concludes by analyzing the structure of multilingual lexicons and suggesting avenues for future research in this field.

Chapter 7: Processing Words in a Multilingual Lexicon (Lemhöfer)

From a predominantly experimental/psycholinguistic perspective, the author summarizes current research and debates about the structure and function of the tri- and multilingual lexicon. Because of the numerous variables that vary from study to study, the author states that it is challenging to systematically examine the behavior of this heterogeneous population of trilingual speakers. An important portion of the chapter is dedicated to revisiting the Bilingual Models; there is an overview of research into word processing, the competitive process, and co-activation, as well as an extensive review of the models BIA and BIA+. The author discusses the inherent challenges that this complexity brings about in the study of the lexicon in a systematic way, looks into whether the bilingual results from several of the experiments have been applied to trilinguals, and describes the trilingual scenario to explain the asymmetries regarding representation and processing. Lemhöfer observes that the three languages of the speaker have the potential to interact during lexical processing in any of the languages and invites further research working on this interactivity.

Chapter 8: Full Transfer in L3/Ln Acquisition: evidence from two clusters of studies (Puig-Mayenco)

Puig-Mayenco summarizes the arguments and empirical data supporting the proposal for full transfer to occur in L3 acquisition, as proposed for L2 acquisition. This article provides the reader with a concise overview of the history of full transfer in L3/Ln. It addresses several data sets and language combinations combined over time to support the theory that full transfer from one of the previously acquired grammars represents a credible explanation of the early phases of L3 acquisition.

Chapter 9: Full Transfer potential in L3/Ln Acquisition: Crosslinguistic influence as a property by property process ( Westergaard, Mitrofanova, Rodina, & Slabakova)

Continuing to analyze full transfer, the authors present a counter argument by providing empirical evidence to support some of the most popular arguments from the perspective of the LPM and the Scalpel Model, in favor of property-by-property transfer in L3/Ln acquisition. The chapter also includes a thorough methodology section in which Westergaard, Mitrofanova, Rodina, & Slabakova formulate the reasoning behind tests intended to look specifically for this kind of transfer, such as the mirror-image groups, the subtractive language group, or fully combined design as alternatives for multilingual studies.

Chapter 10: The acquisition and processing of pragmatics in multilingual and third language learners (Antoniou & Michaelides)

The chapter begins with a helpful introduction that covers the terms bilingualism and multilingualism from various angles, sometimes used synonymously. The authors discuss pragmatic performance, speech acts, and the capacity to communicate and interpret implied meanings, known as implicature. These concepts are presented through research studies and their implications for each topic. A noteworthy section follows, dedicated to examining the bilingual advantage in L3 pragmatic acquisition, drawing on recent studies investigating multilingual populations. Subsequently, the chapter delves into further literature exploring the complexities of speech acts, with particular emphasis on target-language effects, crosslinguistic influence on speech performance, and transfer effects on the L3. The authors address future possible research methodology opportunities in those fields in the conclusion section.

Part III: Becoming and staying multilingual at different ages

Chapter 11: 3L1 Acquisition during childhood (Kupisch)

Early exposure to three languages during childhood is increasingly common in contemporary contexts. The author initiates the review by examining the fundamental concepts of trilingualism as documented in existing literature reviewing research cases. Subsequently, Kupish evaluates the collective impact of several pioneering studies within the field to proceed toward a more detailed analysis of specific language domains. Factors influencing the sustenance and progression of early trilingual language abilities are explored, encompassing both supportive and challenging aspects. The review concludes by highlighting significant prospects for future research in this area.

Chapter 12: Multilingualism and Education in Adulthood (Pérez Vidal & Roquet)

This chapter contextualizes language learning research within compulsory education while critically analyzing multilingual educational policies in higher education. The authors begin by delineating newly established multilingual policies and initiatives, subsequently reinforcing these with case studies and contemporary descriptive models in the European context. They then comprehensively review the literature on language learning, identity formation, and the enduring personal, professional, and individual development fostered by multilingual education. In the concluding remarks, the authors identify three main factors for further exploration and extend them to emerging issues, conflicts, and prospective directions.

Chapter 13: Language attrition and L3/Ln (Cabrelli)

In this chapter, language attrition in the acquisition of a third language (L3) is examined. Cabrelli begins the chapter by summarizing important L2 attrition research and discussing its significance for L3 learning. She focuses on two main research questions about how learning a third language affects previously known linguistic systems, exploring the fundamental research that addresses these questions. Most studies have focused on linguistic features in sequential third-language learners in formal academic settings. She then discusses ongoing issues arising from these studies and investigates possible approaches for representing attrition in multilingual settings. Cabrelli supports incorporating experimental techniques from L1 attrition studies into creating a methodological framework for L3-specific research.

Chapter 14: Heritage speakers as L3 acquirers (Lloyd-Smith & Kupisch)

The introduction to this chapter aids in differentiating between heritage speakers (simultaneous bilinguals) acquiring an L3 and successive bilinguals learning an L3. An in-depth analysis of studies on multilingual individuals acquiring a third language in morphosyntax and phonetics-phonology is presented. A definition of heritage speakers as third language (L3) learners is provided, along with information on empirical studies in these linguistic domains. The chapter discusses distinguishing speakers, comparing research findings in morphosyntax and phonology, and addressing methodological challenges while suggesting areas for future research.

Chapter 15: The effects of environment change on third languages. The case of returnees. (Flores & Kubota)

The chapter discusses three scenarios in which an environmental shift may affect the status of an L3, raising theoretical questions. The research discussion moves around the following situations: First, returning to an L3 environment (in childhood) may change the paths and effects of L3 attrition. Second, relearning a lost language may consist of reactivation or L3 acquisition. Lastly, the authors contribute to the theoretical discussion of L3 acquisition models by examining L3 development post-return and the influence of the dominant language environment. Flores and Kubota suggest that returnees, a group that needs to be thoroughly researched, have the potential to shed light on significant aspects of multilingualism. Future research guidance is provided for longitudinal studies and returnees’ language interactions.

Part IV
L3/Ln in action

Chapter 16: Theoretical linguistic approaches to multilingual code-switching. (Parafita Couto, Bellamy, and Ameka)

The authors suggest that code-switching allows for the exploration of formal properties that may not be apparent when studying a single language, offering valuable data for potential inclusion in theories of mental grammars. An overview of various theoretical explanations for bilingual code-switching is provided, followed by data from multiple research studies to determine if these models apply to multilingual code-switched speech. The complex nature of code-switching demonstrates that linguistic and non-linguistic factors may influence production, judgments, and processing. The authors examine different instances and determine that current theoretical frameworks do not necessitate additional methodology to address multilingual code-switching. However, they state that the limitations of those frameworks also pertain to multilingual contexts, as the field still seeks the most efficient method to elucidate the phenomenon.

Chapter 17: Psycholinguistics of Multilingual Code-Switching. (Valdés Kroff, Kheder, Tomic, and Kaan)

The chapter starts by providing an overview of the psycholinguistics of code-switching, placing it in the context of research on various switching phenomena, such as single-word cued language switching. The authors then analyze linguistic and extra-linguistic factors that impact the production and processing of intrasentential code-switching. An examination of recent studies among multilingual speakers in Algeria is conducted, as they frequently switch between French, Standard Arabic, and Algerian Arabic. The authors look at sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic research on code-switching in a multilingual community like Algiers. They focus on lexical activation and selection, cross-language interaction and switch costs, and how language processing and cognitive control are connected. They highlight the importance of the social environment in multilingual communities as a fundamental basis for conducting experimental research on multilingual code-switching.

Chapter 18: Third language acquisition in the classroom (Angelovska and Hahn)

The chapter commences with an introductory exploration of the impact of bilingual upbringing on L3 acquisition, followed by a comprehensive review of research findings comparing various types of bilingual individuals in multilingual classrooms. Subsequently, the authors examine how the grammatical structures of previously acquired languages influence the development of L3 morphosyntactic interlanguage, focusing on studies investigating transfer in L3 acquisition. They further analyze the complex factors involved in L3 interlanguage development. Concluding the discussion, they offer insights into pedagogical implications for the complexity of L3 instruction in diverse classroom settings, focusing on teacher-related factors.

Chapter 19: Diversity in multilingual learners. How variation in learners and contexts for learning shape the acquisition and processing of an L3/Ln (Kroll and Degani)

The chapter begins with a fresh research summary of three observations on bilingualism that can help tackle various aspects of multilingualism from diverse viewpoints. Bilingual and multilingual speakers may be advantaged in some aspects of new learning opportunities. They explore recent studies on behavioral and brain markers of new learning, moving beyond comparisons between monolingual and bilingual individuals to examine how differences appear among learners, how their learning backgrounds vary, and how learning processes and results are affected by particular environments. The authors discuss recent neuroscience studies that provide insights into language acquisition, even before the point where these processes can be detected through behavior. They conclude by presenting new evidence indicating that the social environments in which language learning occurs influence the learning process. Research will yield the desired information once more accurate and effective methods are developed to capture the variability and dynamic changes in language learning.

Part V L3/Ln and Cognition
Chapter 20: Multilingualism and cognitive control in the brain (Chung-Fat-Yim, Hayakawa, and Marian)

This chapter delves into how multilingual language exposure impacts cognitive control. Research indicates that bilingual individuals constantly activate their languages, posing challenges to their cognitive systems. The authors initially provide an overview of existing literature on bilingualism and cognitive control. Subsequently, attention is given to three distinct groups: third-language learners, multilingual young adults, and simultaneous interpreters, each of which face different levels of language control challenges. Studies on third-language learners reveal neural changes associated with cognitive control during early language acquisition. Conversely, research on multilingual young adults suggests qualitative processing differences compared to monolinguals. Finally, simultaneous interpreters exhibit alterations in brain matter volume.

Chapter 21: Multilingualism and Cognitive Reserve (Calvo & Bialystok)

Calvo and Bialystok aim to analyze literature on bilingualism and cognitive reserve, examining measurement and definition of cognitive reserve, and assessing the impact of bilingualism on cognitive reserve. In recent years, theories of reserve have emerged to explain the brain's ability to withstand neurodegeneration. Cognitive reserve, acquired behavioral manifestations of neuroplasticity, and brain reserve, a biological characteristic, play key roles. Bilingualism has been linked to improved cognitive reserve in older individuals, potentially delaying dementia onset, but evidence remains inconclusive. The chapter covers findings on delayed dementia onset, variations in brain pathology, and disease advancement in multilingual individuals. This analysis may offer insights into the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive reserve, prompting further exploration in clinical research.

Chapter 22: The effects of multilingualism on brain structure, language control, and language processing: insights from MRI (Yee, DeLuca, and Pilatsikas)

In this chapter, Yee, DeLuca, and Pilatsikas investigate whether ongoing brain adaptations occur in multilingual individuals, focusing on changes in structural architecture, functional connectivity, and neural network processing. They start with an introduction to the influence of bilingualism on brain structure and function, then explore how these effects may extend to multilingualism. Reviewed studies reveal initial impacts of multilingualism on subcortical gray matter volume and white matter tract integrity. The authors also discuss language processing and control processes, highlighting variability in resting-state functional connectivity. They examine modulating factors affecting neuroplasticity, including age of skill acquisition, proficiency level, and expertise. Through evidence and theoretical insights, they suggest future research directions in the field.

Chapter 23: Mechanisms of cognitive aging in multilingualism (Antolovic, Higby, and Obler)

The authors begin by exploring the impact of aging and multilingualism on cognitive and executive functions. They then outline three mechanisms—compensation, maintenance, and reserve—to illustrate how multilingualism can influence and regulate a healthy aging process. These mechanisms provide insight into the cognitive changes observed at the intersection of aging and multilingualism, offering preliminary frameworks for predicting the specific effects of multilingual aging on cognitive abilities.

Chapter 24: Multilingualism and Language Impairment (Goral and Fortunato-Tavares)

This chapter investigates language impairments in multilingual individuals, including autism, dyslexia, developmental language disorder in children, and aphasia and traumatic brain injury in adults. The authors address three major topics: the benefits and drawbacks of multilingualism, how impairments manifest across languages, and the outcomes of interventions in multilingual settings. Despite the scarcity of research in this field, the authors identify common themes and suggest potential areas for future research. They argue that learning L3/Ln can help us understand the fundamentals of representing and processing language impairments.

Part VI Research Methods in L3/Ln
Chapter 25: Innovations and challenges in acquisition and processing methodologies for L3/Ln (Pereira Soares, Chaouch-Orozco, and González Alonso)

The authors conduct an extensive examination of research on language processing in a third or subsequent language, expanding beyond the traditionally studied domain of bilingual language processing. These investigations typically arise from psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and computational linguistics. Multilingualism research extends beyond inquiries specific to second-language acquisition, prompting the need for methodological advancements in third-language studies. Innovations in research could continue to bring progress to the field such as mirror-image group design and EEG/ERP in L3 transfer.

Chapter 26: Corpus Research (Wulff)

Despite the scarcity of resources, Wulff offers a valuable resource for conducting corpus research. The author explores L3/Ln studies using publicly accessible corpora from multilinguals, directing readers to these sources and highlighting the need for ongoing research in this area in light of a survey of L3/Ln researchers. Researchers interested in accessing a corpus emphasized the significance of standardizing file formats. This corpus should comprise unannotated data, predominantly featuring combinations of primary (L1) and secondary-third (L2-L3); the L1 most required languages were English and Spanish. An ideal corpus should include metadata providing details such as the age of language acquisition onset, the sequence of language acquisition, the extent of language usage across all languages, the contexts in which languages are spoken, and biographical information. The chapter concludes by exploring the potential of corpus research in L3/Ln to complement experimental studies.

Chapter 27: Case Study Research in Multilingual Contexts (Hammarberg)

Hammarberg provides an overview of case studies that distinguish between multilingual and bilingual studies. The chapter delineates the methodology and the extensive linguistic reach of this particular type of research. It subsequently examines case studies investigating language acquisition and production, intercomprehension processes, polyglots, linguistic biographies, self-reports, and the personal encounters of multilingual individuals.

Chapter 28: Using artificial languages to study third language learning and processing (Grey)

Grey investigates the benefits and potentials of utilizing artificial linguistic systems to research the acquisition and processing of multiple languages. Furthermore, the discussion encompasses reviewing previous research in this area and delving into key topics where these methods have significantly contributed to study third language learning.

Chapter 29: Statistical modeling in L3/Ln acquisition (Duarte García)

Duarte García assesses the use and appropriateness of Bayesian statistical methods for analyzing L3/Ln data. The author advocates for the adoption of Bayesian analysis and demonstrates its advantages through a re-evaluation of the Rothman (2010) dataset, showcasing its utility in rigorous research practices.

EVALUATION

This handbook is designed to appeal to practitioners as well as applied and theoretically oriented researchers. It provides an expansive exploration of the current landscape of the field, incorporating historical contexts and the evolution of various subtopics within L3/Ln acquisition. Each chapter presents a fresh perspective, furnishing a robust framework and comprehensive review of the research within its specific domain. Moreover, the text adeptly identifies gaps in the existing literature and research, presenting them as opportunities for further investigation and scholarly contributions. As a result, the volume stands as a cutting-edge synthesis of L3/Ln language acquisition, offering invaluable insights particularly for new researchers looking for innovative topics in the field.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Maria Laura Mecias is a Ph.D. student in Hispanic Linguistics at the University of Florida, where she also teaches Spanish for Healthcare Professionals. María Laura is particularly interested in second language acquisition with a focus on vocabulary development for multilingual speakers.