Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/35-2415

Title: Migrationslinguistik
Subtitle: Eine Einführung
Series Title: narr STUDIENBÜCHER
Publication Year: 2024

Publisher: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG
http://www.narr.de/
Book URL: https://www.narr.de/migrationslinguistik-18517-1/

Author(s): Nikolas Koch, Claudia Maria Riehl

Reviewer: Luca Melchior

SUMMARY

Migrationslinguistik provides an introduction to the linguistic issues associated with the phenomenon of migration. It is a handbook aimed primarily at students (and at “interested colleagues”, as the authors write in their preface [11]) at German universities and therefore presents the topic using the example of migration movements and their consequences in this country. The fourteen chapters of the book attempt to cover the broad thematic spectrum of this research field, ranging from the different forms of multilingualism, theories of (second) language acquisition and the connections between migration and language learning, forms and functions of multilingual speech, phenomena of language attrition, preservation and loss of multilingualism in the migration society, representations of migrants' languages in the target society to a brief description of some strongly represented heritage languages in Germany (Russian, Turkish and Italian as diaspora languages), the connection between language and individual identity and the challenges (and opportunities) for the educational system, and so on.
Chapter 1 introduces the book’s central topic and the discipline of migration linguistics, an innovative and interdisciplinary field that examines language-related aspects of migration. As societies become increasingly mobile and globalized, this field has gained growing relevance.

The chapter provides historical and statistical data on migration to Germany in the 20th and 21st centuries, emphasizing that migration linguistics is fundamentally a study of multilingualism. It also outlines the theoretical and methodological frameworks underpinning the discipline, including variational linguistics, language acquisition research, contact linguistics, and pragmalinguistics.

A methodological shift within migration linguistics is highlighted:
- 1970s–1980s: Quantitative and structuralist approaches were predominant;
- since the 1990s: Qualitative ethnographic methods and interactional approaches have taken precedence, reflecting broader trends in sociolinguistic research, where intercultural and ethnographic methodologies have become increasingly influential.The chapter concludes with an overview of the book’s structure.

Chapter 2 introduces key aspects of migration and multilingualism, providing statistical data on migration to Germany. The authors highlight that while the term migration background is often perceived negatively, migration society is framed positively, as migration is considered a driving force for social modernization. They argue that migration is essential for economic and social development.
The chapter presents regional variations in migration history within Germany, as illustrated by demographic data:

In metropolitan regions such as the Rhine-Main area, the Ruhr region, and the cities of Stuttgart, Hamburg, Bremen, and Berlin, more than 35% of the population has a migration history.
In eastern regions the proportion is less than 14%.
The authors also analyze age distribution among individuals with a migration history:
Highest proportion: Found in the 0–5 age group (40.8%).
Declines until the 35–45 age group, where it rises slightly (35.1% vs. 34.2% in the 25–35 age group).
Significant decrease in older age groups: 9.4% among those aged 85–95.
Regarding migration background composition, the authors categorize the population as follows:
29.9%: German citizens without personal migration experience.
22.8%: German citizens with personal migration experience.
7.5%: Foreign citizens without personal migration experience (born in Germany).
39.8%: Foreign citizens with personal migration experience.
The book distinguishes three types of migration:
Refugee migration: Has increased significantly since 2014.
Labor migration: Crucial in the second half of the 20th century, particularly since the 1970s.
Elite migration: Includes expatriates, diplomats, and professionals, who often do not identify as migrants.The authors emphasize that public acceptance of migrants varies depending on migration type, as does societal acceptance of their languages.

Another distinction is made between classic migration and transnational migration:
Classic migration involves long-term settlement.
Transnational migrants (e.g., highly skilled workers, diplomats, members of international organizations) exhibit greater mobility, frequently relocating between countries.
The second part of the chapter explores the concept of multilingualism. The authors argue that multilingualism is the norm, encompassing internal multilingualism (e.g., dialectal variation). They distinguish between:
Individual multilingualism
Social multilingualism
Institutional multilingualism
In line with recent research on multilingualism, the authors advocate for a perspective that views entire linguistic repertoires, rather than treating languages as separate systems. They emphasize multicompetence, defined as the ability to utilize all linguistic resources available to an individual.
The chapter concludes by discussing the relationship between heritage language (‘Herkunftssprache’) and multilingualism. The authors differentiate between:
Lifeworld multilingualism (informal, home-based multilingualism).
Educational multilingualism (school-based language acquisition).
They examine the societal status of these forms of multilingualism and their impact on heritage language preservation.

Chapter 3 examines multilingual societies, beginning with a distinction between territorial multilingualism, as found in Switzerland, and di- and polyglossic situations, though the authors do not explicitly use these terms. The discussion then shifts to the issue of linguistic minorities within monolingual nations.Linguistic minorities are categorized into two groups:
Minorised linguistic communities that exist in one or more nations but remain in a subordinate sociolinguistic position, such as the Bretons and Basques.
Majoritarian-minorised linguistic communities, which are dominant in some countries but minorised in others. This group is further subdivided into:
Border minorities (‘Grenzminderheiten’).
Linguistic islands (‘Sprachinselminderheiten’).
Autochthonous "remnant" minorities (‘autochthone Restminderheiten’), such as the Ladins in Italy.
The authors highlight that international treaties such as the ‘European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML)’ primarily protect autochthonous language communities, while migrant languages receive little to no protection.The chapter provides a brief overview of autochthonous minorities in Germany, including:
Danish-speaking communities
Frisian-speaking communities
Sorbian-speaking communities
The Sinti and Roma minority
Additionally, it discusses five of the largest migrant language communities:
Russian-speaking
Turkish-speaking
Polish-speaking
Albanian-speaking
Italian-speaking

Chapter 4 explores the relationship between migration and individual multilingualism. The authors distinguish between two types of language acquisition:
‘Ungesteuerter Spracherwerb’ (≈ natural language acquisition).
‘Gesteuerter Spracherwerb’ (≈ structured language learning).They then turn to bilingual language acquisition, emphasizing its positive cognitive effects, particularly in relation to theory of mind. The chapter outlines:
The key characteristics of bilingual language acquisition.
The primary strategies for multilingual education.
A discussion of language dominance follows, covering:
Classical factors used to measure dominance, such as share of speech, mean length of utterance, upper bound, and presence of functional categories.
Domain-based theories of language dominance.The authors then examine second language acquisition in early childhood, a common phenomenon in migration contexts. They refute the double semilingualism hypothesis, arguing that it is rooted in monolingual ideological biases. However, they acknowledge that multilingual education presents challenges. These difficulties are illustrated using German acquisition, specifically:
The V2 position.
The use of parentheses.
The verb-final position in subordinate clauses.
The chapter concludes with an analysis of adult second language acquisition, highlighting two key factors:
Motivation.
Age as a crucial determinant of language learning success.

Chapter 5 explores language learning in migration contexts, presenting key theories of second language acquisition. It begins with the structuralist contrastive hypothesis and proceeds to generativist-inspired nativist theories, including the “Fundamental Difference Hypothesis” and the “Access to UG Hypothesis”. The chapter then introduces the “Interlanguage Hypothesis”, which focuses on the dynamics of language learning and developmental processes, particularly in educational contexts aimed at exam preparation.

The discussion continues with “Processability Theory” (cf. e.g. Pienemann 1998) and usage-based approaches, which contrast sharply with generativist theories. These models seek to explain both first and second language acquisition (cf. Ellis/Wulff 2020), emphasizing the role of individual differences and the impact of factors such as the quality and quantity of interaction and input. A specific focus is given to the ‘Competition Model’ (cf. e.g. MacWhinney 2022), which integrates cognitive and linguistic perspectives on language learning.

Chapter 6 examines multilingualism across migrant generations. The authors first critically assess the classical three-generation model and introduce the concept of language generations in migration contexts, distinguishing between first, second, and third generations, as well as generation 1.5, which refers to individuals who migrated during childhood or adolescence.
The chapter then outlines the key characteristics of language acquisition across different generations before presenting methods for studying language distribution and individual language dominance. Particular attention is given to the “Language Vitality Index (LVI)” (Extra 2015, 15-16), alongside studies on multilingualism in German-speaking regions.Next, the authors introduce the “Linguistic Capital Model” (Brizić 2006), which conceptualizes linguistic skills as a form of social and economic capital. The chapter concludes with an examination of societal and individual language attrition and loss, linking these phenomena to previously discussed theoretical models.

Chapter 7 introduces key concepts related to language mixing among multilingual speakers, including 'code-switching', 'code-mixing', and 'transfer'. These terms are explained with examples and shown to vary in meaning depending on different theoretical approaches.The chapter focuses primarily on code-mixing, defined as the alternating use of two or more languages within a conversation, and transfer, which refers to the lexical, semantic, grammatical, and pragmatic influence of one language on another. The authors also highlight that certain linguistic phenomena cannot be solely attributed to contact language influence but rather stem from the simultaneous cognitive processing of multiple languages. This process can result in the simplification of complex linguistic structures, a phenomenon that occurs independently of the typological proximity or distance between the languages involved.
The chapter concludes with a discussion of the more recent concept of 'translanguaging', which is critically examined and ultimately rejected.

Chapter 8 examines code-mixing as one of the most prominent features of multilingual speech, particularly in the linguistic practices of migrants, especially those of the second and third generations. Several examples of code-mixing in speech are provided.The discussion then shifts to 'code-mixing' in the language development of children, emphasizing the importance of frequency in determining which constructions are mixed. The role of prefabricated linguistic chunks from one language being inserted into another is also highlighted.The chapter further explores the communicative functions of code-mixing, including:
Marking quotations.
Expressing personal attitudes.
Emphasizing key elements in conversation.
The relationship between language mixing and identity formation is also examined, particularly regarding the ways in which individuals use code-switching and code-mixing as markers of social and cultural belonging.The chapter concludes with an analysis of psycholinguistic, non-functional 'code-switching' triggered by specific words.

The following two chapters explore the impact of migration on linguistic systems. Chapter 9 examines the effects of multilingualism in migration contexts, focusing on Russian, Turkish, and Italian as heritage languages. It analyzes changes across lexical, semantic, morphological, syntactic, and pragmatic features. The chapter identifies several common linguistic tendencies:
Lexical transfer frequently occurs when lexical items share formal similarities across languages.
Morphological simplification can be observed in Turkish and Russian as a result of language inheritance.Italian and Turkish show a tendency toward pleonastic use of personal pronouns.
In Russian, article-like elements have emerged as a structural development.Beyond these general trends, the authors emphasize the importance of individual factors influencing language development, including:
Age
Education level
Degree of language contact
They also highlight that linguistic contact typically involves non-standard, colloquial, or dialectal varieties, rather than standardized forms.

Chapter 10 explores the influence of migration on the German language. It first introduces the concept of 'Gastarbeiterdeutsch' and examines whether it constitutes a distinct variety of German. The authors conclude that it is better understood as a collection of different learner varieties rather than a coherent linguistic subsystem.
The chapter then shifts focus to ethnolectal German, analyzing its linguistic characteristics from four perspectives:
Phonetics
Lexicon
Morphology
Syntax
The discussion further highlights how ethnolectal varieties initially function as identity markers for specific ethnic groups but can later be adopted by other ethnic communities as well as by members of the majority group. This process, referred to as de-ethnicization, results in the dissociation of ethnolectal features from specific ethnic identities, integrating them into broader linguistic usage.

Chapter 11, authored by Johanna Holzer, shifts the perspective to individual biographical narratives. Drawing on narrative language-biographical interviews, the chapter illustrates the identity-forming function of language(s) in multilingual and migratory contexts.
Holzer distinguishes between two forms of positioning in discourse:
'Self-positioning' refers to how individuals construct their own identity through language.
'Other-positioning' concerns how individuals are perceived and categorized by others based on their language use.The chapter demonstrates how language-biographical approaches contribute to the linguistic reconstruction of identity, particularly in migration-related multilingual settings.

Chapter 12, co-authored with Johanna Holzer, examines language policy and planning, focusing on the visibility of migrant languages in host societies. The authors analyze the presence of different languages on the websites of selected institutions in Germany and find that:
Migrant languages are largely absent.
English is the most prominently represented foreign language.
Sign language and 'Leichte Sprache' (easy language) are well represented.
French and Chinese appear only sporadically.
The chapter introduces key concepts in language policy, including:
'Language planning'.
'Language acquisition planning'.
'Language prestige'.
It also presents the 'language management approach' (cf. for example Dovalil 2022) and explores its implications for migration contexts.
Finally, the chapter discusses linguistic landscape research with a particular focus on migrant languages. It highlights possible didactic approaches aimed at fostering:
'Language awareness'.
A critical engagement with 'language attitudes'.

Chapter 13, authored by Nicole Weidinger, examines immigration-related educational inequalities in Germany. It focuses on disparities in both skill acquisition and participation in education across different stages of the German education system.
The chapter analyzes the key factors contributing to these inequalities, highlighting the role of social disadvantage and limited proficiency in academic German. It also discusses measures aimed at the early identification and prevention of educational failure, emphasizing the importance of early childhood education policies designed to create equitable starting opportunities for migrant children at school entry.

However, the authors point out that the specific conditions and characteristics of migrant children's language acquisition are not adequately considered. Additionally, they note that the positive effects of language support measures have not been sufficiently validated through empirical research.
The chapter concludes by identifying the development of appropriate methods for assessing language proficiency and supporting language acquisition as a priority in addressing educational disparities.

Chapter 14 examines the challenges that migration poses for the education system. It begins by defining academic language, drawing on various descriptive approaches. A key distinction is made between 'konzeptionelle Mündlichkeit' and 'konzeptionelle Schriftlichkeit' (Koch/Oesterreicher 1985), followed by an exploration of the functions of academic language in educational contexts.
The chapter highlights the central role of German language acquisition in educational policies. However, the authors argue against teaching German as an isolated subject. Instead, they advocate for integrated language education (‘durchgängige Sprachbildung’), suggesting that all subjects should be taught in a language-sensitive manner to ensure equitable access to subject knowledge.
A key focus is the pedagogical approach of translanguaging, which is presented in contrast to its critical discussion in Chapter 7. Here, it is framed as a positive didactic strategy that acknowledges the full linguistic repertoire of learners. The authors also highlight its potential benefits in digital learning environments.The chapter then addresses heritage language education, critiquing Germany’s federal structure for resulting in inconsistent policies and varying institutional responsibilities. The authors call for a multilingual integrated language education model to ensure sustained linguistic development across different languages.

Finally, the chapter introduces integration courses for adult migrants, which aim to:
Develop German language proficiency.
Provide civic education on German history and institutions.
These courses, however, face significant challenges, including:
The heterogeneity of participants with highly diverse educational backgrounds.
Varying levels of prior formal education and qualifications.
Precarious working conditions for instructors, which can impact the quality and sustainability of these programs.

The book ends with a list of corpora, the bibliography and a subject index.
Each chapter includes a link to online tasks along with their corresponding solutions.

EVALUATION

This volume represents a significant contribution to the study of migration linguistics. One of its most notable strengths is its comprehensive examination of migration and its linguistic consequences from multiple perspectives, including contact linguistics, language acquisition, sociolinguistic approaches, and educational implications. This multifaceted approach provides a well-rounded and insightful analysis of the topic, successfully fulfilling the authors' objective of offering an excellent introduction to migration linguistics for both students and scholars.

There are only a few points of critique. One concerns the use of the term linguistic island, whose appropriateness has been widely debated in recent years (cf. e.g. Földes 2006, Wildfeuer 2017). Another concerns the criticism of translanguaging in Chapter 7, which is not entirely convincing for two reasons. First, the discussion focuses exclusively on the interpretation of translanguaging by Otheguy/García/Reid (2015), without considering other perspectives (for a discussion, see Thöne/Kölling 2023, 13-16). Second, the assertion that language is a social construct rather than a fixed reality is well established in both the structuralist tradition (cf. Coseriu 1980) and in contemporary sociolinguistic approaches.

Finally, as demonstrated in Chapter 14, translanguaging aligns well with holistic conceptions of linguistic repertoires, such as Busch’s (2012) framework, further highlighting its relevance within modern sociolinguistic and speaker-centered research. Furthermore, it is somewhat surprising that in the discussion of the functions of educational language there has been no reference to the widely read essay by Morek/Heller. The book's exclusive focus on the German context may limit its applicability in Austrian and Swiss universities. However, this, along with minor typographical errors (e.g., MacWhinney 2022 mistakenly cited as ‘MacWhinney u. a. 2022’ [102]), does not diminish the overall quality of the work as well as the overall quality of the volume, which deserves a wide readership.

REFERENCES

Brizić, Katharina. 2006. Das geheime Leben der Sprachen. Eine unentdeckte migrantische Bildungsressource. Kurswechsel 21(2). 32–43.

Busch, Brigitta. 2012. The Linguistic Repertoire Revisited. Applied Linguistics 33(5). 503–523. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/ams056.

Coseriu, Eugenio. 1980. “Historische Sprache” und “Dialekt.” In Joachim Göschel, Pavle Ivić & Kurt Kehr (eds.), Dialekt und Dialektologie. Ergebnisse des internationalen Symposions “Zur Theorie des Dialekts”, Marburg/Lahn, 5.-10. September 1977 (Zeitschrift Für Dialektologie Und Linguistik. Beihefte 26), 106–122. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.

Dovalil, Vít. 2022. Metalinguistic activities as a focus of sociolinguistic research: Language Management Theory, its potential, and fields of application. Sociolinguistica 36(1–2). 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1515/soci-2022-0030.

Ellis, Nick C. & Stefanie Wulff. 2020. Usage-based approaches to L2 acquisition. In Bill Vanpatten, Gregory D. Keating & Stefanie Wulff (eds.), Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An Introduction (Second Language Acquisition Research Series), 64–82. 3rd edn. New York/London: Routledge.

Extra. 2015. Mapping Urban Multilingualism in Europe: In Search of Untapped Resources in Primary Schools. In Emili Boix-Fuster (ed.), Urban Diversities and Language Policies in Medium-Sized Linguistic Communities (Multilingual Matters 159), 1–24. Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto: Multilingual Matters.

Földes, Csaba. 2006. ’Sprachinsel’-Paradigma auf dem Prüfstand: Konzept, Terminologie und Forschungsmethodologie. Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie 125(3). 321–341.

Koch, Peter & Wulf Oesterreicher. 1985. Sprache der Nähe - Sprache der Distanz. Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Spannungsfeld von Sprachtheorie und Sprachgeschichte. Romanistisches Jahrbuch 36(1). 15–43. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110244922.15.

MacWhinney, Brian. 2022. The Competition Model: Past and Future. In Judit Gervain, Gergely Csibra & Kristóf Kovács (eds.), A Life in Cognition. Studies in Cognitive Science in Honor of Csaba Pléh (Language, Cognition, and Mind 11), 3–16. Cham: Springer.

Morek, Miriam & Vivien Heller. 2012. Bildungssprache. Kommunikative, epistemische, soziale und interaktive Aspekte ihres Gebrauchs. Zeitschrift für angewandte Linguistik 57. 67–101. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfal-2012-0011.

Otheguy, Ricardo, Ofelia García & Wallis Reid. 2015. Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages: A perspective from linguistics. Applied Linguistics Review 6(3). 281–307. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2015-0014.

Pienemann, Manfred. 1998. Language Processing and Second Language Development. Processability Theory (Studies in Bilingualism (SiBil) 15). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Thöne, Clara & Marei Kölling. 2023. Translanguaging als Weg zur mehrsprachigen Bildung? Theoretische Grundannahmen und offene Fragen. In Esra Hack-Cengizalp, Melanie David-Erb & Irene Corvacho del Toro (eds.), Mehrsprachigkeit und Bildungspraxis (Mehrsprachigkeit in Bildungskontexten 2), 13–31. Bielefeld: wbv.

Wildfeuer, Alfred. 2017. Sprachinseln, Sprachsiedlungen, Sprachminderheiten. Zur Bezeichnungsadäquatheit dieser und weiterer Termini. In Alexandra N. Lenz, Ludwig Maximilian Breuer, Tim Kallenborn, Peter Ernst, Manfred Michael Glauninger & Franz Patocka (eds.), Bayerisch-österreichische Varietäten zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts - Dynamik, Struktur, Funktion. 12. Bayerisch-Österreichische Dialektologentagung (Zeitschrift Für Dialektologie Und Linguistik. Beihefte 167), 373–387. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Luca Melchior studied German and Romanian studies in Udine, Rostock, and Timișoara before completing a postgraduate master's in language teaching in Venice. He earned a PhD in Romance linguistics, focusing on migration linguistics, in Munich and Udine. From 2009 to 2018, he was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Graz, later becoming a professor of multilingualism research at the University of Klagenfurt (2018-2021). He currently holds a professorship in German didactics at the same university. His research interests include migration linguistics, multilingualism, minority languages, sociolinguistics, language teaching, lexicography, and the history of linguistics.