Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/33.2861

EDITOR: Natalia Knoblock
TITLE: The Grammar of Hate
SUBTITLE: Morphosyntactic Features of Hateful, Aggressive, and Dehumanizing Discourse
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2022

REVIEWER: Yat Ho Wong

Summary

“The Grammar of Hate” is a comprehensive volume comprising an introduction, 13 individual chapters, and an index. It offers an exploration of verbal aggression expressed through morphosyntactic means across seven Indo-European languages: Ukrainian, Russian, English, Greek, Czech, German, and Danish.

Chapter 1, authored by Natalia Knoblock, illustrates how linguistic communities tend to invent new slurs when the old ones become outdated. The two slurs analysed in her study serve to create a homogeneous out-group during times of conflict between two nations, interestingly, both are related to plants. What is particularly innovative is that, in response to these new layers of semantic meaning, there have been changes in morphosyntactic features. For example, in Ukrainian, the mass noun “vata” has transformed into a collective noun and is now used with verbs in plural forms. Similarly, in Russian, the term “Ukrop” has witnessed changes in animacy, leading to irregular declension patterns. Unfortunately, this form of linguistic creativity has been employed for derogatory purposes and has contributed to the propagation of hateful discourse. Nevertheless, this chapter illustrates how political conflicts can trigger semantic and morphosyntactic innovations within languages.

Chapter 2, authored by Elisa Mattiello, delves into the use of the -o suffix in English. Her research reveals that the -o suffix serves three distinct functions: mockery, criticism, and offence. Mattiello employs collocation analysis to demonstrate that words with the -o suffix (e.g., weirdo) are more likely to be used in contexts with derogatory intent compared to their base forms (e.g., weird). Additionally, she conducts qualitative analyses by examining authentic usages of these slangs, sourced from Green’s Dictionary of Slang. By applying the theory of Morphopragmatics, Mattiello illustrates that the -o suffix systematically contributes to independent pragmatic meanings within language.

Chapter 3, authored by Elizaveta Tarasova and José Antonio Sánchez Fajardo, examines the negative implications of the English suffix -ie/y from a cognitive linguistic perspective. They analyse its evaluative characteristics and how alterations in word meanings relate to conceptual processes using evaluative morphological forms. The chapter demonstrates that when the semantic components [+human] and [+adult] are activated, diminution takes on a pejorative connotation. Beyond the influence of context and initial meanings, the ellipted noun plays a significant role in semantic shifts and new pragmatic functions. Semantic attributes inherited from the base, including race and ethnicity, contribute to the transition from diminution to pejoration. Their research also reveals that non-Western nationality or ethnicity-based nominalisations with the +ie/y suffix tend to have a single derogatory meaning, while Western ones are often polysemous. This underscores that pejorative language is not solely rooted in linguistic elements but also anthropological attitudes.

In Chapter 4, Katerina Christopoulou, George Xydopoulos, and Anastasios Tsangalidis investigate the correlation between grammatical gender and slang offensiveness in Greek. They focus on diminutive suffixes and misgendering in their research, summarising their findings using two continua, one for masculine words and one for feminine words. Their main discovery is that when a masculine word is changed to a feminine form, it becomes offensive, especially with augmentative prefixes and suffixes. However, making a feminine word appear masculine does not increase its offensiveness. This suggests a misogynistic perspective in Greek, where likening someone to the feminine gender is seen as derogatory.

Chapter 5, by Jonáš Thál and Irene Elmerot, delves into the misgendering of transgender individuals in Czech. It examines variations in grammatical suffixes in expressions of dislike, revealing infrahumaniation when preferred gender identities are ignored. Hate speech in Czech does not heavily manipulate morphosyntactic patterns, but rather through the following linguistic constructions: subject-predicate agreement discrepancies in gender (evident in pronouns, adjectival and participle suffixes), gender-mismatched attributes (seen in adjectival suffixes and possessive pronouns), predicative nouns such as “trans men are women,” and conflicts in gender assignment for direct objects, primarily reflected in personal pronouns. The authors thus suggest combining morphosyntactic and semantic analyses with more extensive data for a comprehensive assessment.

In Chapter 6, Miriam Lind and Damaris Nübling’s analysis reveals that the German grammatical gender system has preserved a patriarchal perspective of women. Women who depart from the idealised notion of saintly motherhood due to characteristics such as immaturity, excessive sexuality, assertiveness, or promiscuity are labelled using neuter gender nouns, pronouns, or articles. This linguistic pattern extends into contemporary hateful discourse, targeting both women and non-binary individuals. When referring to female public figures, the use of neuter gender serves to diminish their power and agency. Additionally, when referring to non-binary individuals, it functions as a derogatory label, relegating them to a status beneath that of humans.

Natalia Knoblock and Yaroslava Sazonova, in Chapter 7, explore alterations in grammatical gender within Ukrainian political discourse, particularly when referring to male politicians, using grammatically neuter forms. Viewed through the concept of grammatical metaphor, their study demonstrates how gender can effectively convey expressive and evaluative elements. The utilisation of neuter linguistic features, such as verbs and adjectives marked with neuter inflexions, becomes especially influential when employing the neuter pronoun ‘it’ to express disapproval in reference to male politicians. By linking the neuter grammatical gender to the domain of humanity, where the expectation is either masculine or feminine forms, it diminishes the standing of the politician being referred to.

In Chapter 8, Linda Flores Ohlson explores how the shift from ‘he’ or ‘she’ to ‘it’ represents a potent dehumanising tactic. She contends that the selection of a pronoun can reveal much about one's attitude towards and relationship with the subject. The choice of a specific pronoun holds the power to either portray the entity as part of the human realm or to exclude it from it. Using the neuter pronoun to reference a human in English yields an extremely negative pragmatic outcome. By examining both fictional and real-life situations, Ohlson asserts that the use of the neuter pronoun serves to debase the target of verbal attacks within the hierarchy of existence.

In Chapter 9, Natalia Beliaeva demonstrates the potential of blending with names for manipulative purposes, particularly within media and political discourse. While lexical blends are typically associated with humour, Beliaeva’s research uncovers their darker side as derogatory terms. Her study investigates the various triggers that prompt the use of blending as a means of verbal aggression. Among these triggers, personal names emerge as a significant factor. When a personal name is blended with another word, it significantly heightens the chances of conveying derogatory meanings and fostering pejorative effects. However, she also posits that blending across distinct domains may carry varying connotations, some of which could be positive.

In Chapter 10, Katharina Korecky-Kröll and Wolfgang Dressler delve into the examination of adjective compounds in the German language. Expressive compounds, typically composed of a derogatory noun and a predominantly pejorative adjective, carry a strong negative connotation. In these compounds, both the first and second elements mutually amplify and intensify each other, thus bestowing the compound with potent offensive potential. These expressive adjective compounds are predominantly encountered in assertive speech acts within aggressive discourse, serving functions such as insults, curses, threats, and aggressive commands. The authors contribute to research on German adjective compounds by offering a more detailed classification with illustrative examples.

In Chapter 11, Robert Bianchi examines the use of imperative verbs in Brent Tarrant's hate-filled manifesto posted on Facebook. This analysis uncovers a significant frequency of aggressive verbs such as "kill," "destroy," and "attack" within the text. Importantly, the study reveals that these verbs are often directed towards actual human beings, as opposed to a neutral reference corpus where these actions are not typically associated with specific individuals. The paper explores how these selected grammatical elements function to position the author as a de facto leader within an envisioned radical white supremacist revolutionary movement characterised by violence, environmentalism, and anti-establishment sentiments.

Chapter 12, authored by Klaus Geyer, Eckhard Bick, and Andrea Kleene, delves into the examination of two common constructions utilised in hate speech within Danish and German social media discussions. These constructions, namely the "I am no racist but..." and "oh so + adjective + noun" forms, are thoroughly explored beyond the scope of individual word forms and lexemes to encompass their overall structural composition. The chapter also provides insights into the frequent targets of these constructions, including foreigners, refugees, Muslims, and individuals with Middle Eastern backgrounds. It highlights the methodological innovation that, through meticulous annotation, researchers can move beyond the lexical level to investigate the formulation patterns and construction of hate speech, which might facilitate hate speech management online.

In Chapter 13, David Peterson utilises the systemic functional linguistic approach to dissect homophobic discourse. His specific focus lies in how text creators deploy interpersonal resources to shape the perception of spatio-temporal aspects in Western America, consistently portraying them in connection with heteronormative masculinity. This often contrasts with depictions of metropolitan or cosmopolitan spaces and individuals. Drawing inspiration from the Hallidayan concept of Mood^Residue clause structure, the chapter delves into the intricate relationship between space-time, grammatical mood, speech function, and the representation of both queer and heteronormative participants within clauses. This analysis unveils that queer cowboys are marginalised both in spatial and temporal dimensions.

Evaluation

The edited collection brings together a coherent set of articles that explore the utilisation of morphosyntactic elements in hate speech and dehumanising language. These chapters are authored by leading experts in their respective fields, providing authoritative and in-depth insights into their specific subjects. Notably, this volume goes beyond the confines of the English language, encompassing a range of other languages. As the editor highlighted, this book represents an endeavour to move beyond the examination of lexical and discursive aspects of hateful discourse. Several chapters, such as Chapters 1, 5, 6, and 7, delve into declension patterns concerning grammatical gender, Chapters 2, 3, and 4, scrutinise suffixes, particularly diminutives, Chapter 8, investigates pronouns, and Chapters 9 and 10, focus on word formation, effectively accomplish this objective. The chapters within this volume investigate various contexts where hateful discourse is prevalent. These contexts encompass situations involving ethnic, racial, or religious bias (Chapters 2, 3, 8, 11, and 12), as well as discussions related to homophobia and transphobia (Chapters 4, 5, 6, 8, and 13). Furthermore, specific chapters delve into the realm of sexism (Chapters 4 and 6), while others explore the intricate relationship between political divides and verbal aggression (Chapters 1, 7, 9, and 10).

Another objective of this edited volume is to contribute to the identification of hate speech online. However, in certain chapters, this goal is implicitly addressed, with limited explicit guidance on how researchers focusing on the automatic detection of online hate speech can leverage the insights presented in this book. An exception to this pattern is Chapter 12, where the author dedicates a few lines in the concluding section to discuss the applicability of the results in this context. Thál and Elmerot in Chapter 5 also acknowledge that, particularly in the context of Czech, determining whether an expression is dehumanising or misgendering solely based on morphosyntactic features could be misleading (2022: 113). Similarly, Beliaeva in Chapter 9 underscores that blending itself is not necessarily an indicator of verbal aggression (2022: 192). The subtleties in determining its intent often necessitate a more contextual interpretation for a definitive assessment. Such complexities further hinder the transferability of the findings to other domains. The elusive nature of hate speech can make it challenging to define precisely and quantify its level of offensiveness. In some instances, operationalising hate speech or assessing its degree of offensiveness may rely primarily on the intuitions of native speakers, as suggested by Christopoulou et al. in Chapter 4 (2022: 87).

In conclusion, this edited volume, with its focus on various languages and contexts, provides a comprehensive view of the challenges and nuances involved in addressing hate speech. It also emphasises the significant scholarly attention given to affixation, compounding, and other word-formation methods as means of verbal aggression. However, it also presents a somewhat pessimistic outlook for the effective identification of hate speech on social media, particularly when dealing with content that is produced indirectly and subtly.

REFERENCES
Dressler, W. U. and L. Merlini Barbaresi (2017). Pragmatics and Morphology:Morphopragmatics.
In: Y. Huang (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 493–510.
Halliday, M. A. K. & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). Halliday’s Introduction to Functional
Grammar, 4th edn. London: Routledge.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Yat Ho Wong is currently pursuing his PhD at the University of Duisburg-Essen, where he is conducting research on the self- and other-construction of Hong Kong migrants within British public discourse. His study primarily examines the influence of elite discourse on migrants through newspaper publications, aiming to understand the extent to which their representation in public discourse shapes their lived experiences in their new host country.